A Quality by Design approach to investigate tablet dissolution shift upon accelerated stability by multivariate methods

Discriminative Dissolution Method Development Through an aQbD Approach

Using a one-factor-at-a-time approach for dissolution method and discrimination analysis can be time-consuming and may not yield the optimal and discriminative method. To address this, we have developed a two-stage workflow for the dissolution method development followed by demonstration of discrimination power through an analytical Quality by Design (aQbD) approach. In the first stage, an optimal dissolution method was achieved by determining the method operable design region (MODR) through a design of experiment study of the high-risk method-related parameters. In the second stage, we established a Formulation-Discrimination Correlation Diagram strategy to examine the method discrimination capability, through which one can determine the method discriminative design region (MDDR) and visualize the impact of each formulation parameter and their interactions on dissolution. The application of aQbD principles into a workflow provides a scientific-driven guidance for robust method development and demonstrating discrimination power for dissolution methods.

Formulation, Optimization, and Evaluation of Oregano Oil Nanoemulsions for the Treatment of Infections Due to Oral Microbiota

Introduction

Natural oil-based nanoemulsions (NEs) have been widely investigated in many diseases that affect the oral cavity. NEs are delivery systems that enhance the solubility of lipid therapeutics and improve their delivery to target sites; they are known as self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDSs). The current investigation's aim was to produce an oregano essential oil-based nanoemulsion (OEO-SNEDD) that would have antibacterial and antifungal effects against oral microbiota and improve oral health.

Methods

Several OEO-SNEDDSs were developed using different percentages of OEO (10%, 14%, and 18%), percentages of a surfactant mixture Pluracare L64:Lauroglycol FCC (18%, 32%, and 36%), S_mix ratios (1:2, 1:1, and 2:1), and hydrophilic-lipophilic balances (HLBs) of the surfactant mixture (8, 10, and 12) using the Box‒Behnken design. The optimized concentration of excipients was determined using a pseudoternary phase diagram to obtain the NEs. The formulations were evaluated for their droplet size, stability index, and antibacterial and antifungal activities.

Results

The NEs had a droplet size of 150 to 500 nm and stability index of 47% to 95%, and the produced formulation reached antibacterial and antifungal inhibition zones of up to 19 and 17 mm, respectively. The Box‒Behnken design was adopted to get the optimum formulation, which was 18% OEO, 36% S_mix, 10.29 HLB of S_mix, and a 1.25:1 S_mix ratio. The optimized formulation had a lower ulcer index compared with various other formulations evaluated in rats.

Conclusion

This study illustrated that OEO-SNEDDSs can provide good protection against oral microbial infections.

Development and Validation of a Discriminatory Dissolution Model for an Immediately Release Dosage Form by DOE and Statistical Approaches

A discriminatory dissolution model was built through DOE with multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and multiple linear regression (MLR) modeling to assess dissolution operational space for a highly water soluble immediate-release solid dosage drug product. The dissolution was utilized in the following five aspects: (1) understand the impact of individual variables and their interactions on dissolution performance through effect analysis; (2) explain the lack of discriminatory power of the initial dissolution condition used in early phase development by prediction profiler; (3) predict discriminatory dissolution operational space to differentiate photo degraded drug products from control with contour profiler analysis; (4) validate by the external experimental data acquired with the initial nondiscriminatory dissolution condition and the predicted discriminatory dissolution condition, followed by model independent statistical analysis (e.g., f2); and (5) establish correlation of the discriminatory dissolution with disintegration. The selected discriminatory dissolution method was validated by demonstrating accuracy, precision and linearity, specificity, repeatability, intermediate precision, stability, filter verification, and robustness.

Development, optimization and characterization of nanoemulsion loaded with clove oil-naftifine antifungal for the management of tinea

Tinea is a common superficial infection caused by keratinophylic fungi called dermatophytes. The objective of the current investigation was to develop and optimize a self-nanoemulsion drug delivery system (SENDDs) using clove oil loaded with naftifine (NF). Clove oil possesses good anti-inflammatory and antifungal properties that can support naftifine action. Box–Behnken designs were used to prepare plain and naftifine loaded SENDDs. The plain SENDDs were evaluated for their globule size. The medicated formulations (NF-CO-SENDDs) were characterized by measuring their globular size, ex vivo % NF permeated, level of interleukin-31 in rats, and antifungal activity. The optimum clove oil level was found to be 10–17%, while NF-CO-SENDDs formulations displayed globular sizes ranging from 119 to 310 nm. The statistical design confirmed the synergistic effect of clove oil and NF in the treatment of fungal infections, confirming that the anti-inflammatory effect of clove oil can counteract the side effects of NF. The optimized formulation composed of 14% clove oil, 12.5 mg Naftifine, and prepared with an Smix ratio equaling 3:1, exhibited good antifungal and anti-inflammatory activity, achieving up to 2-, 3-, 5.75-, and 2.74-fold increases in the amount of permeated NF, steady-state flux, permeability, and diffusion coefficients, respectively, compared with a commercial product. Moreover, the optimum formulation revealed an adequate zeta potential value of 28.31 ± 1.37 mV and showed reasonable stability with no or mild signs of skin sensitivity. Therefore, the designed nanoemulsions containing a combination of clove oil and naftifine could be considered promising delivery systems for the treatment of tinea.

Coconut Oil Nanoemulsion Loaded with a Statin Hypolipidemic Drug for Management of Burns: Formulation and In Vivo Evaluation

Burn wound healing is a complex process that involves the repair of injured tissues and the control of infection to diminish the scar formation, pain, and discomfort associated with such injuries. The aim of this research was to formulate and optimize a self-nanoemulsion drug delivery system based on the use of coconut oil and loaded with simvastatin. Coconut oil possesses antiinflammatory and antibacterial activity, and simvastatin has interesting properties for promoting the wound-healing process because it increases the production of the vascular endothelial growth factor at the site of injury. The Box–Behnken design was employed for the optimization of the coconut oil–simvastatin self-nanoemulsion drug delivery system. The prepared formulations were characterized according to globular size and their activity in the healing of burn wounds by assessing the mean wound diameter and level of interlukin-6 in experimental animals. Additionally, the antimicrobial activity of the prepared formulations was assessed. The nanoemulsion was considered adequately formed when it had droplets of between 65 and 195 nm. The statistical design proved the important synergistic effect of coconut oil and simvastatin for burn wound management in their synergistic potentiation of wound closure and their anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects. The optimum formulation achieved up to a 5.3-fold decrease in the mean burn wound diameter, a 4.25-fold decrease in interleukin-6 levels, and a 6-fold increase in the inhibition zone against Staphylococcus aureus when compared with different control formulations. Therefore, the designed nanoemulsions containing a combination of coconut oil and simvastatin could be considered promising platforms for the treatment of chronic and burn wounds.

Quality by Design: Concept to Applications

BACKGROUND

Quality by Design (QbD) is associated with a modern, systematic, scientific and novel approach which is concerned with pre-distinct objectives that not only focus on product, process understanding but also lead to process control. It predominantly signifies the design and product improvement and the manufacturing process in order to fulfill the predefined manufactured goods or final products quality characteristics. It is quite essential to identify the desired and required product performance report, such as Target Product Profile, typical Quality Target Product Profile (QTPP) and Critical Quality Attributes (CQA).

METHODS

This review highlighted the concepts of QbD design space, for critical material attributes (CMAs) as well as the critical process parameters that can totally affect the CQAs within which the process shall be unaffected thus, consistently manufacturing the required product. Risk assessment tools and design of experiments are its prime components.

RESULTS

This paper outlines the basic knowledge of QbD, the key elements; steps as well as various tools for QbD implementation in pharmaceutics field are presented briefly. In addition to this, quite a lot of applications of QbD in numerous pharmaceutical related unit operations are discussed and summarized.

CONCLUSION

This article provides a complete data as well as the roadmap for universal implementation and application of QbD for pharmaceutical products.

Application of percolation threshold to disintegration and dissolution of ibuprofen tablets with different microcrystalline cellulose grades

The study presented was conducted to determine whether a percolation threshold value, previously determined for ibuprofen/microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) blends using percolation theory and compression data (Queiroz et al., 2019), could translate to tablet disintegration and dissolution data. The influence of MCC grade (air stream dried versus spray dried) on tablet disintegration and dissolution was also investigated. Complementary to conventional disintegration and dissolution testing, Raman imaging determined drug distribution within tablets, and in-line particle video microscopy (PVM) and focused-beam reflectance measurement (FBRM) monitored tablet disintegration. Tablets were prepared containing 0-30% w/w ibuprofen. Raman imaging confirmed the percolation threshold by quantifying the number and equivalent circular diameters of ibuprofen domains on tablet surfaces. Across the percolation threshold, a step change in dissolution behaviour occurred, and tablets containing air stream dried MCC showed slower disintegration rates compared to tablets containing spray dried MCC. Dissolution measurements confirmed experimentally a percolation threshold in agreement with that determined using percolation theory and compression data. An increase in drug domains, due to cluster formation, and less efficient tablet disintegration contributed to slower ibuprofen dissolution above the percolation threshold. Slower dissolution was measured for tablets containing air stream dried compared to spray dried MCC.

Optimization and Quality by Design Approach for Piroxicam Fast Dissolving Tablet Formulations Using Box-Behnken Design

Background:

The present study deals with the formulation and optimization of piroxicam fast dissolving tablets and analyzes the impact of an independent variable while selecting the optimized formulation utilizing Quality by Design (QbD) and Box-Behnken Design (BBD).

Methods:

Seventeen formulations were prepared by direct compression technique by altering the proportion of cross carmellose sodium, spray dried lactose and hydro propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC K4M). The BBD statistical technique was used to optimize formulations and correlate the relationship among all the variables. Also, the powder mixture characteristics and tablet physiochemical properties such as hardness, friability, drug content, Disintegration Time (DT) and dissolution test were determined using 900 ml of 0.1N HCl (pH-1.2) at 37 ± 0.5°C.

Results:

Significant quadratic model and second order polynomial equations were established using BBD. To find out the relationship between variables and responses, 3D response surface and 2D contour plot was plotted. A perturbation graph was also plotted to identify the deviation of the variables from the mean point. An optimized formula was prepared based on the predicted response and the resulting responses were observed to be close with the predicted value.

Conclusion:

The optimized formulation with the desired parameter and formulation with variables and responses can be obtained by BBD and could be used in the large experiment with the involvement of a large number of variables and responses.

Why should the pharmaceutical industry claim for the implementation of second-order chemometric models-A critical review

Today, pharmaceutical products are submitted to a large number of analytical tests, planned to either ensure or construct their quality. The official methods of analysis used to perform these determinations are very different in nature, but almost all demand the intensive use of reagents and manpower as major drawbacks. Thus, analytical development is continuously evolving to find fast and smart approaches. First-order chemometric models are well-known in the pharmaceutical industry, and are extensively used in many fields. Such is the impact of chemometric models that regulatory agencies include them in guidelines and compendia. However, the mention or practical application of higher-order models in the pharmaceutical industry is rather scarce. Herein, we try to bring a brief introduction to chemometric models and useful literature references, focusing on higher-order chemometric models (HOCM) applied to reduce manpower, reagent consumption, and time of analysis, without sacrificing accuracy or precision, while gaining selectivity and sensitivity. The advantages and drawbacks of HOCM are also discussed, and the comparison to first-order chemometric models is also analyzed. Along the work, HOCM are evidenced as a powerful tool for the pharmaceutical industry; moreover, its implementation is shown during several steps of production, such as identification, purity test and assay, and other applications as homogeneity of API distribution, Process Analytical Technology (PAT), Quality by Design (QbD) or natural product fingerprinting. Among these topics, qualitative and quantitative applications were covered. Experimental approaches of chemometrics coupled to several analytical techniques such as UV-vis, fluorescence and vibrational spectroscopies (NIR, MIR and Raman), and other techniques as hyphenated-chromatography and electrochemical techniques applied to production and analysis are discussed throughout this work.

From protocol to product: ventral midbrain dopaminergic neuron differentiation for the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Current cell therapy product limitations include the need for in-depth product understanding to ensure product potency, safety and purity. New technologies require development and validation to address issues of production scale-up to meet clinical need; assays are required for process control, validation and release. Prior to clinical realization, an understanding of production processes is required to implement process changes that are essential for process control. Identification of key parameters forms the basis of process tolerances, allowing for validated, adaptive manufacturing processes. This enables greater process control and yield while withstanding regulatory scrutiny. This report summaries key milestones in specifically for ventral midbrain dopaminergic neuroprogenitor differentiation and key translational considerations and recommendations to enable successful, robust and reproducible current cell therapy product-manufacturing.

Product Development, Manufacturing, and Packaging of Solid Dosage Forms Under QbD and PAT Paradigm: DOE Case Studies for Industrial Applications

An integrated approach based on QbD and PAT provides a systematic and innovative framework for product development, manufacturing, and quality risk management. In this context, the significance of the outcome of design of experiments (DOEs) to the selection of the product design, robust commercial manufacturing process, design space, and overall control strategy remains vital for the success of a drug product throughout its life cycle. This paper aims at discussing selected recent DOE case studies conducted during QbD-based and integrated QbD/PAT-based development of solid oral formulations and process improvement studies. The main focus of this paper is to highlight the rationales and importance of design selection during development and applications of mathematical models and statistical tools in analyzing DOE and PAT data for developing a design space, control strategy, and improved process monitoring. A total of 25 case studies (includes 9 PAT application studies) have been discussed in this paper which cover 11 manufacturing processes commonly utilized for solid dosage forms. Two case studies relevant to selection of packaging design for solid dosage forms are also briefly discussed to complete the scope. Overall, for a successful modern QbD approach, it is highly important that DOEs are conducted and analyzed in a logical sequence which involves designs that are phase-appropriate and quality-driven and facilitate both statistical and chemometric thinking at each development stage. This approach can result into higher regulatory flexibility along with lower economic burden during life cycle of a product, irrespective of regulatory path used (NDA or ANDA).

Retrospective Quality by Design (rQbD) applied to the optimization of orodispersible films

The study demonstrates the application of QbD based on historical data for a product at a later development stage - retrospective QbD (rQbD). More specifically, it is investigated the root-cause for the observed slower drug release in Orodispersible Films (ODFs) during storage. Risk assessment tools were used to identify parameters affecting ODFs critical quality attributes, namely percent drug release and residual water content. The parameters room temperature, room relative humidity, drying temperature and mixing equipment were used in the statistical modeling of the available data. The estimated models were then used to define the feasible working region. Statistical modeling indicates that initial residual water content of the ODFs is mainly affected by 2nd order interactions of room temperature, room relative humidity and drying temperature, while the stability of drug release profile is mostly influenced by room temperature and an interaction between room relative humidity and drying temperature. Depending on the drying temperature employed the effect of room temperature and room relative humidity change significantly. This work shows that it is possible to apply rQbD to achieve a greater understanding of the manufacturing process of ODFs and to define a proper design space.

Understanding and predicting the impact of critical dissolution variables for nifedipine immediate release capsules by multivariate data analysis

In this study the selection of in vivo predictive in vitro dissolution experimental set-ups using a multivariate analysis approach, in line with the Quality by Design (QbD) principles, is explored. The dissolution variables selected using a design of experiments (DoE) were the dissolution apparatus [USP1 apparatus (basket) and USP2 apparatus (paddle)], the rotational speed of the basket/or paddle, the operator conditions (dissolution apparatus brand and operator), the volume, the pH, and the ethanol content of the dissolution medium. The dissolution profiles of two nifedipine capsules (poorly soluble compound), under conditions mimicking the intake of the capsules with i. water, ii. orange juice and iii. an alcoholic drink (orange juice and ethanol) were analysed using multiple linear regression (MLR). Optimised dissolution set-ups, generated based on the mathematical model obtained via MLR, were used to build predicted in vitro-in vivo correlations (IVIVC). IVIVC could be achieved using physiologically relevant in vitro conditions mimicking the intake of the capsules with an alcoholic drink (orange juice and ethanol). The multivariate analysis revealed that the concentration of ethanol used in the in vitro dissolution experiments (47% v/v) can be lowered to less than 20% v/v, reflecting recently found physiological conditions.

The solid-state continuum: a perspective on the interrelationships between different solid-state forms in drug substance and drug product

Objective

The objective of the review is to provide an overview of the nomenclature used in the solid-state continuum and relate these to the development of drug substances and drug products.

Key findings

The importance of a rational approach to solid-state form selection, including integrated decision making (ensuring equal weight is given to the needs of the drug substance and the drug product), is vital for the effective development of a drug candidate. For example, how do secondary processing considerations influence the selection of drug substance solid-state form and resulting formulation, and how can drug substance solid-state form be used to optimise secondary processing? Further, the potential use of ‘crystal’ engineering to optimise stability, purity and optical resolutions, and the linked regulatory requirements, will be discussed.

Summary

The nomenclature used in the solid-state continuum, which contains a large number of different crystalline and non-crystalline forms, for example, amorphous systems, was reviewed. Further, the significant role of the drug substance within the solid oral dose form from a physicochemical perspective was covered.

Optimizing the taste-masked formulation of acetaminophen using sodium caseinate and lecithin by experimental design

In a previous study of ours, the association of sodium caseinate and lecithin was demonstrated to be promising for masking the bitterness of acetaminophen via drug encapsulation. The encapsulating mechanisms were suggested to be based on the segregation of multicomponent droplets occurring during spray-drying. The spray-dried particles delayed the drug release within the mouth during the early time upon administration and hence masked the bitterness. Indeed, taste-masking is achieved if, within the frame of 1-2 min, drug substance is either not released or the released amount is below the human threshold for identifying its bad taste. The aim of this work was (i) to evaluate the effect of various processing and formulation parameters on the taste-masking efficiency and (ii) to determine the optimal formulation for optimal taste-masking effect. Four investigated input variables included inlet temperature (X1), spray flow (X2), sodium caseinate amount (X3) and lecithin amount (X4). The percentage of drug release amount during the first 2 min was considered as the response variable (Y). A 2(4)-full factorial design was applied and allowed screening for the most influential variables i.e. sodium caseinate amount and lecithin amount. Optimizing these two variables was therefore conducted by a simplex approach. The SEM and DSC results of spray-dried powder prepared under optimal conditions showed that drug seemed to be well encapsulated. The drug release during the first 2 min significantly decreased, 7-fold less than the unmasked drug particles. Therefore, the optimal formulation that performed the best taste-masking effect was successfully achieved.