1
|
Chen X, Song Y, Hong Y, Zhang X, Li Q, Zhou H. "NO" controversy?: A controversial role in insulin signaling of diabetic encephalopathy. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2024; 593:112346. [PMID: 39151653 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2024.112346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 08/19/2024]
Abstract
Insulin, a critical hormone in the human body, exerts its effects by binding to insulin receptors and regulating various cellular processes. While nitric oxide (NO) plays an important role in insulin secretion and acts as a mediator in the signal transduction pathway between upstream molecules and downstream effectors, holds a significant position in the downstream signal network of insulin. Researches have shown that the insulin-NO system exhibits a dual regulatory effect within the central nervous system, which is crucial in the regulation of diabetic encephalopathy (DE). Understanding this system holds immense practical importance in comprehending the targets of existing drugs and the development of potential therapeutic interventions. This review extensively examines the characterization of insulin, NO, Nitric oxide synthase (NOS), specific NO pathway, their interconnections, and the mechanisms underlying their regulatory effects in DE, providing a reference for new therapeutic targets of DE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xi Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310014, China
| | - Ying Song
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310014, China; Hangzhou King's Bio-pharmaceutical Technology Co., Ltd, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310007, China.
| | - Ye Hong
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310014, China
| | - Xiaomin Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310014, China
| | - Qisong Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310014, China
| | - Hongling Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310014, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Li B, Yang Y, Ding Y, Ge Y, Xu Y, Xie Y, Shi Y, Le G. Dityrosine in food: A review of its occurrence, health effects, detection methods, and mitigation strategies. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2023; 22:355-379. [PMID: 36382862 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Protein and amino acid oxidation in food products produce many new compounds, of which the reactive and toxic compound dityrosine, derived from oxidized tyrosine, is the most widely studied. The high reactivity of dityrosine enables this compound to induce oxidative stress and disrupt thyroid hormone function, contributing to the pathological processes of several diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, cognitive dysfunction, aging, and age-related diseases. From the perspective of food safety and human health, protein-oxidation products in food are the main concern of consumers, health management departments, and the food industry. This review highlights the latest research on the formation pathways, toxicity, detection methods, occurrence in food, and mitigation strategies for dityrosine. Furthermore, the control of dityrosine in family cooking and food-processing industry has been discussed. Food-derived dityrosine primarily originates from high-protein foods, such as meat and dairy products. Considering its toxicity, combining rapid high sensitivity dityrosine detection techniques with feasible control methods could be an effective strategy to ensure food safety and maintain human health. However, the current dityrosine detection and mitigation strategies exhibit some inherent characteristics and limitations. Therefore, developing technologies for rapid and effective dityrosine detection and control at the industrial level is necessary.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Li
- National Engineering Laboratory/Key Laboratory of Henan Province, College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, 450001, China.,State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, 214122, China
| | - Yuhui Yang
- National Engineering Laboratory/Key Laboratory of Henan Province, College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, 450001, China
| | - Yinyi Ding
- College of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310018, China
| | - Yueting Ge
- College of Life Science, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang, Henan Province, 464000, China
| | - Yuncong Xu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yanli Xie
- National Engineering Laboratory/Key Laboratory of Henan Province, College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, 450001, China
| | - Yonghui Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, 214122, China
| | - Guowei Le
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, 214122, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Malík M, Tlustoš P. Nootropics as Cognitive Enhancers: Types, Dosage and Side Effects of Smart Drugs. Nutrients 2022; 14:3367. [PMID: 36014874 PMCID: PMC9415189 DOI: 10.3390/nu14163367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nootropics, also known as "smart drugs" are a diverse group of medicinal substances whose action improves human thinking, learning, and memory, especially in cases where these functions are impaired. This review provides an up-to-date overview of the potential effectiveness and importance of nootropics. Based on their nature and their effects, this heterogeneous group of drugs has been divided into four subgroups: classical nootropic compounds, substances increasing brain metabolism, cholinergic, and plants and their extracts with nootropic effects. Each subgroup of nootropics contains several main representatives, and for each one, its uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosage, and possible side effects and contraindications are discussed. For the nootropic plant extracts, there is also a brief description of each plant representative, its occurrence, history, and chemical composition of the medicinal part. Lastly, specific recommendations regarding the use of nootropics by both ill and healthy individuals are summarized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Pavel Tlustoš
- Department of Agroenvironmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zakaria ZA, Roosli RAJ, Marmaya NH, Omar MH, Basir R, Somchit MN. Methanol Extract of Dicranopteris linearis Leaves Attenuate Pain via the Modulation of Opioid/NO-Mediated Pathway. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10020280. [PMID: 32059475 PMCID: PMC7072186 DOI: 10.3390/biom10020280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Dicranopteris linearis leaf has been reported to exert antinociceptive activity. The present study elucidates the possible mechanisms of antinociception modulated by the methanol extract of D. linearis leaves (MEDL) using various mouse models. The extract (25, 150, and 300 mg/kg) was administered orally to mice for 30 min priot to subjection to the acetic acid-induced writhing-, hot plate- or formalin-test to establish the antinociceptive profile of MEDL. The most effective dose was then used in the elucidation of possible mechanisms of action stage. The extract was also subjected to the phytochemical analyses. The results confirmed that MEDL exerted significant (p < 0.05) antinociceptive activity in those pain models as well as the capsaicin-, glutamate-, bradykinin- and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induced paw licking model. Pretreatment with naloxone (a non-selective opioid antagonist) significantly (p < 0.05) reversed MEDL effect on thermal nociception. Only l-arginine (a nitric oxide (NO) donor) but not N(ω)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME; a NO inhibitor) or 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ; a specific soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor) significantly (p < 0.05) modified MEDL effect on the writhing test. Several polyphenolics and volatile antinociceptive compounds were detected in MEDL. In conclusion, MEDL exerted the opioid/NO-mediated antinociceptive activity, thus, justify D. linearis as a potential source for new analgesic agents development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zainul Amiruddin Zakaria
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (R.A.J.R.); (M.N.S.)
- Integrative Pharmacogenomics Institute (iPROMISE), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Puncak Alam Campus, Bandar Puncak Alam Selangor 42300, Malaysia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +60-19-211-7090
| | - Rushduddin Al Jufri Roosli
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (R.A.J.R.); (M.N.S.)
| | - Najihah Hanisah Marmaya
- Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Melaka Campus, Melaka 75300, Malaysia;
| | - Maizatul Hasyima Omar
- Phytochemistry Unit, Herbal Medicine Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, Jalan Pahang, Kuala Lumpur 50588, Malaysia;
| | - Rusliza Basir
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Muhammad Nazrul Somchit
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (R.A.J.R.); (M.N.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
|
6
|
Zakaria ZA, Abdul Rahim MH, Mohd Sani MH, Omar MH, Ching SM, Abdul Kadir A, Ahmed QU. Antinociceptive activity of petroleum ether fraction obtained from methanolic extract of Clinacanthus nutans leaves involves the activation of opioid receptors and NO-mediated/cGMP-independent pathway. BMC COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2019; 19:79. [PMID: 30940120 PMCID: PMC6446312 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-019-2486-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Methanol extract (MECN) of Clinacanthus nutans Lindau leaves (family Acanthaceae) demonstrated peripherally and centrally mediated antinociceptive activity via the modulation of opioid/NO-mediated, but cGMP-independent pathway. In the present study, MECN was sequentially partitioned to obtain petroleum ether extract of C. nutans (PECN), which was subjected to antinociceptive study with aims of establishing its antinociceptive potential and determining the role of opioid receptors and L-arginine/nitric oxide/cyclic-guanosine monophosphate (L-arg/NO/cGMP) pathway in the observed antinociceptive activity. METHODS The antinociceptive potential of orally administered PECN (100, 250, 500 mg/kg) was studied using the abdominal constriction-, hot plate- and formalin-induced paw licking-test in mice (n = 6). The effect of PECN on locomotor activity was also evaluated using the rota rod assay. The role of opioid receptors was determined by pre-challenging 500 mg/kg PECN (p.o.) with antagonist of opioid receptor subtypes, namely β-funaltrexamine (β-FNA; 10 mg/kg; a μ-opioid antagonist), naltrindole (NALT; 1 mg/kg; a δ-opioid antagonist) or nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI; 1 mg/kg; a κ-opioid antagonist) followed by subjection to the abdominal constriction test. In addition, the role of L-arg/NO/cGMP pathway was determined by prechallenging 500 mg/kg PECN (p.o.) with L-arg (20 mg/kg; a NO precursor), 1H-[1, 2, 4] oxadiazolo [4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ; 2 mg/kg; a specific soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor), or the combinations thereof (L-arg + ODQ) for 5 mins before subjection to the abdominal constriction test. PECN was also subjected to phytoconstituents analyses. RESULTS PECN significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited nociceptive effect in all models in a dose-dependent manner. The highest dose of PECN (500 mg/kg) also did not significantly (p > 0.05) affect the locomotor activity of treated mice. The antinociceptive activity of PECN was significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited by all antagonists of μ-, δ-, and κ-opioid receptors. In addition, the antinociceptive activity of PECN was significantly (p < 0.05) reversed by L-arg, but insignificantly (p > 0.05) affected by ODQ. HPLC analysis revealed the presence of at least cinnamic acid in PECN. CONCLUSION PECN exerted antinocicpetive activity at peripheral and central levels possibly via the activation of non-selective opioid receptors and modulation of the NO-mediated/cGMP-independent pathway partly via the synergistic action of phenolic compounds.
Collapse
|
7
|
Apetrei IM, Apetrei C. Highly sensitive voltamperometric determination of pyritinol using carbon nanofiber/gold nanoparticle composite screen-printed carbon electrode. Int J Nanomedicine 2017; 12:5177-5188. [PMID: 28860746 PMCID: PMC5560415 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s138978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel and highly sensitive electrochemical method for the detection of pyritinol in pharmaceutical products and serum samples has been accomplished based on voltamperometric response of pyritinol in carbon nanofiber-gold nanoparticle (CNF-GNP)-modified screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE). The electrochemical response of pyritinol to CNF-GNP-modified SPCE was studied by cyclic voltammetry and square-wave voltammetry (SWV). Under optimized working conditions, the novel sensor shows excellent voltamperometric response toward pyritinol. The SWV study shows significantly enhanced electrochemical response for pyritinol in CNF-GNP-modified SPCE providing high sensitivity to the novel sensor for pyritinol detection. The peak current for pyritinol is found to be linear with the concentration in the range 1.0×10-8-5.0×10-5 M with a detection limit of 6.23×10-9 M using SWV as the detection method. The viability of the new developed sensor for the analytical purposes was studied by performing experiments on various commercial pharmaceutical products and blood serum samples, which yielded adequate recoveries of pyritinol. The novel electrochemical sensor provides high sensitivity, enhanced selectivity, good reproducibility and practical applicability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irina Mirela Apetrei
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical and Pharmaceutical Research Center, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy
| | - Constantin Apetrei
- Department of Chemistry, Physics and Environment, Faculty of Sciences and Environment, "Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati, Galati, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Painful neuropathy, like the other complications of diabetes, is a growing healthcare concern. Unfortunately, current treatments are of variable efficacy and do not target underlying pathogenic mechanisms, in part because these mechanisms are not well defined. Rat and mouse models of type 1 diabetes are frequently used to study diabetic neuropathy, with rats in particular being consistently reported to show allodynia and hyperalgesia. Models of type 2 diabetes are being used with increasing frequency, but the current literature on the progression of indices of neuropathic pain is variable and relatively few therapeutics have yet been developed in these models. While evidence for spontaneous pain in rodent models is sparse, measures of evoked mechanical, thermal and chemical pain can provide insight into the pathogenesis of the condition. The stocking and glove distribution of pain tantalizingly suggests that the generator site of neuropathic pain is found within the peripheral nervous system. However, emerging evidence demonstrates that amplification in the spinal cord, via spinal disinhibition and neuroinflammation, and also in the brain, via enhanced thalamic activity or decreased cortical inhibition, likely contribute to the pathogenesis of painful diabetic neuropathy. Several potential therapeutic strategies have emerged from preclinical studies, including prophylactic treatments that intervene against underlying mechanisms of disease, treatments that prevent gains of nociceptive function, treatments that suppress enhancements of nociceptive function, and treatments that impede normal nociceptive mechanisms. Ongoing challenges include unraveling the complexity of underlying pathogenic mechanisms, addressing the potential disconnect between the perceived location of pain and the actual pain generator and amplifier sites, and finding ways to identify which mechanisms operate in specific patients to allow rational and individualized choice of targeted therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Corinne A Lee-Kubli
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Sanford-Burnham Institute for Molecular Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA; Department of Pathology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Nigel A Calcutt
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Vinpocetine and pyritinol: a new model for blood rheological modulation in cerebrovascular disorders—a randomized controlled clinical study. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:324307. [PMID: 25548768 PMCID: PMC4274818 DOI: 10.1155/2014/324307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2014] [Revised: 08/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Blood and plasma viscosity are the major factors affecting blood flow and normal circulation. Whole blood viscosity is mainly affected by plasma viscosity, red blood cell deformability/aggregation and hematocrit, and other physiological factors. Thirty patients (twenty males + ten females) with age range 50-65 years, normotensive with history of cerebrovascular disorders, were selected according to the American Heart Stroke Association. Blood viscosity and other rheological parameters were measured after two-day abstinence from any medications. Dual effects of vinpocetine and pyritinol exhibit significant effects on all hemorheological parameters (P < 0.05), especially on low shear whole blood viscosity (P < 0.01), but they produced insignificant effects on total serum protein and high shear whole blood viscosity (P > 0.05). Therefore, joint effects of vinpocetine and pyritinol improve blood and plasma viscosity in patients with cerebrovascular disorders.
Collapse
|
10
|
Rocha-González HI, Ramírez-Aguilar M, Granados-Soto V, Reyes-García JG, Torres-López JE, Huerta-Cruz JC, Navarrete A. Antineuropathic effect of 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rodents. BMC COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2014; 14:129. [PMID: 24708659 PMCID: PMC3984493 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6882-14-129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Background Painful neuropathy is the most common and debilitating complication of diabetes and results in hyperalgesia and allodynia. Hyperglycemia clearly plays a key role in the development and progression of diabetic neuropathy. Current therapeutic approaches are only partially successful and they are only thought to reduce the pain associated with peripheral neuropathy. Some natural products offer combined antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties that may help to treat in a more integrative manner this condition. In this regard, the purpose of this study was to investigate the antineuropathic effect of 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and mice without glucose control as well as the possible mechanism of action involved in this effect. Methods Rats and mice were injected with 50 or 200 mg/kg streptozotocin, respectively, to produce hyperglycemia. The formalin test and von Frey filaments were used to assess the nociceptive activity. Rota-rod was utilized to measure motor activity and malondialdehyde assay to determine anti-oxidative properties. Results After 3 weeks of diabetes induction, chemical hyperalgesia was observed in streptozotocin-injected rats. Oral acute administration of 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin (0.3–30 mg/kg) decreased in a dose-dependent manner formalin-evoked hyperalgesia in diabetic rats. In addition, methiothepin (non-selective 5-HT receptor antagonist, 1 mg/kg, i.p.) and ODQ (guanylyl cyclase inhibitor, 2 mg/kg, i.p.), but not naltrexone (opioid receptor antagonist, 1 mg/kg, s.c.), prevented 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin-induced antihyperalgesic effect. The anti-hyperalgesic effect of 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin was similar to that produced by pregabalin (10 mg/kg, p.o.). Furthermore, oral acute administration of 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin (30 mg/kg) reduced streptozotocin-induced changes in malondialdehyde concentration from plasma samples. Unlike pregabalin, 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin did not affect motor activity. Six weeks after diabetes induction, tactile allodynia was observed in the streptozotocin-injected rats. At this time, oral administration of 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin (30 mg/kg) or pregabalin (10 mg/kg) reduced in a similar way tactile allodynia in diabetic rats. Finally, chronic oral administration of 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin (30-300 mg/kg, 3 times/week, during 6 weeks), significantly prevented the development of mechanical hyperalgesia and allodynia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Conclusions Data suggests that 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin has acute and chronic effects in painful diabetic neuropathy. This effect seems to involve antioxidant properties as well as activation of 5-HT receptors and inhibition of guanylyl cyclase enzyme.
Collapse
|
11
|
Analysis of the mechanisms underlying the antinociceptive effect of epicatechin in diabetic rats. Life Sci 2013; 93:637-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2013.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
12
|
Abstract
This paper is the 31st consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2008 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration and thermoregulation (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, 65-30 Kissena Blvd, Flushing, NY 11367, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Current World Literature. Curr Opin Support Palliat Care 2009; 3:144-51. [DOI: 10.1097/spc.0b013e32832c6adb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|