1
|
Vega-Rivera NM, Ortiz-López L, Granados-Juárez A, Estrada-Camarena EM, Ramírez-Rodríguez GB. Melatonin Reverses the Depression-associated Behaviour and Regulates Microglia, Fractalkine Expression and Neurogenesis in Adult Mice Exposed to Chronic Mild Stress. Neuroscience 2020; 440:316-336. [PMID: 32417342 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Depression may be precipitated by the negative impact of chronic stress, which is considered to play a key role in this neuropsychiatric disorder. Interestingly, depressed patients show decreased levels of melatonin. This hormone acts pro-neurogenic and exhibits anti-depressant effects in rodent models of predictive antidepressant-like effects. However, the benefits of melatonin in reversing the deleterious effects of chronic mild stress on the alterations in behaviour and in the neurogenic niche of the hippocampus in male BALB/c mice are unknown. In this study, we compared the effects of melatonin (2.5 mg/kg) and citalopram (5 mg/kg), an antidepressant drug belonging to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, in male BALB/c mice exposed to chronic mild stress (CMS). We also investigated the potential effects of melatonin and citalopram on microglial cells, hippocampal neurogenesis and peripheral cytokine profiles. Melatonin and citalopram induced similar antidepressant-like activities that occurred with some of the the following findings: (1) reversal of the morphological alterations in microglia; (2) reversal of the decreased immunoreactivity to CX3CL1 and CX3CR1 in the dentate gyrus; (3) positive regulation of cell proliferation, survival and complexity of the dendritic trees of doublecortin-cells; and (4) modifications of peripheral CX3CL1 expression. This outcome is consistent with the hypothesis about the antidepressant-like effect of melatonin and supports its relevance as a modulator of the niche in the dentate gyrus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nelly Maritza Vega-Rivera
- Laboratorio de Neuropsicofarmacología, Dirección de Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Calz. México-Xochimilco 101, 14370 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Leonardo Ortiz-López
- Laboratorio de Neurogénesis, Subdirección de Investigaciones Clínicas, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Calzada México-Xochimilco 101, 14370 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Andrea Granados-Juárez
- Laboratorio de Neurogénesis, Subdirección de Investigaciones Clínicas, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Calzada México-Xochimilco 101, 14370 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Erika Monserrat Estrada-Camarena
- Laboratorio de Neuropsicofarmacología, Dirección de Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Calz. México-Xochimilco 101, 14370 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Gerardo Bernabé Ramírez-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Neurogénesis, Subdirección de Investigaciones Clínicas, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Calzada México-Xochimilco 101, 14370 Ciudad de México, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ramírez-Rodríguez GB, Palacios-Cabriales DM, Ortiz-López L, Estrada-Camarena EM, Vega-Rivera NM. Melatonin Modulates Dendrite Maturation and Complexity in the Dorsal- and Ventral- Dentate Gyrus Concomitantly with Its Antidepressant-Like Effect in Male Balb/C Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21051724. [PMID: 32138332 PMCID: PMC7084558 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis occurs in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus. New neurons help to counteract the effects of stress and several interventions including antidepressant drugs, environmental modifications and internal factors act pro-neurogenic with consequences in the dorsal and ventral DG. Melatonin, the main product synthesized by the pineal gland, induces antidepressant-like effects and modulates several events of the neurogenic process. However, the information related to the capability of melatonin to modulate dendrite maturation and complexity in the dorsal and ventral regions of the DG and their correlation with its antidepressant-like effect is absent. Thus, in this study, we analyzed the impact of melatonin (0, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5 or 10 mg/kg) administered daily for fourteen days on the number, dendrite complexity and distribution of doublecortin (DCX)-cells in the dorsal-ventral regions of the DG in male Balb/C mice. Doublecortin is a microtubule-associated protein that is expressed during the course of dendritic maturation of newborn neurons. Also, we analyzed the impact of melatonin on despair-like behavior in the forced swim test. We first found a significant increase in the number and higher dendrite complexity, mainly with the doses of 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg of melatonin (81%, 122%, 78%). These cells showed more complex dendritic trees in the ventral- and the dorsal- DG. Concomitantly, the doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg of melatonin decreased depressant-like behavior (76%, 82%). Finally, the data corroborate the antidepressant-like effect of melatonin and the increasing number of doublecortin-associated cells. Besides, the data indicate that melatonin favors the number and dendrite complexity of DCX-cells in the dorsal- and ventral- region of the DG, which may explain part of the antidepressant-like effect of melatonin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Bernabé Ramírez-Rodríguez
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis, Division of Clinical Investigations, National Institute of Psychiatry “Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz”, Calzada Mexico-Xochimilco No. 101, Mexico City C.P. 14370, Mexico; (D.M.P.-C.); (L.O.-L.)
- Correspondence: (G.B.R.-R.); (N.M.V.-R.)
| | - Diana Montserrat Palacios-Cabriales
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis, Division of Clinical Investigations, National Institute of Psychiatry “Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz”, Calzada Mexico-Xochimilco No. 101, Mexico City C.P. 14370, Mexico; (D.M.P.-C.); (L.O.-L.)
| | - Leonardo Ortiz-López
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis, Division of Clinical Investigations, National Institute of Psychiatry “Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz”, Calzada Mexico-Xochimilco No. 101, Mexico City C.P. 14370, Mexico; (D.M.P.-C.); (L.O.-L.)
| | - Erika Montserrat Estrada-Camarena
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Neurosciences, National Institute of Psychiatry “Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz”, Calzada Mexico-Xochimilco No. 101, Mexico City C.P. 14370, Mexico;
| | - Nelly Maritza Vega-Rivera
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Neurosciences, National Institute of Psychiatry “Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz”, Calzada Mexico-Xochimilco No. 101, Mexico City C.P. 14370, Mexico;
- Correspondence: (G.B.R.-R.); (N.M.V.-R.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pytka K, Młyniec K, Podkowa K, Podkowa A, Jakubczyk M, Żmudzka E, Lustyk K, Sapa J, Filipek B. The role of melatonin, neurokinin, neurotrophic tyrosine kinase and glucocorticoid receptors in antidepressant-like effect. Pharmacol Rep 2017; 69:546-554. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2017.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
|
4
|
Sun X, Wang M, Wang Y, Lian B, Sun H, Wang G, Li Q, Sun L. Melatonin produces a rapid onset and prolonged efficacy in reducing depression-like behaviors in adult rats exposed to chronic unpredictable mild stress. Neurosci Lett 2017; 642:129-135. [PMID: 28082153 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The present study was aimed at evaluating the rapidity and duration of melatonin as an antidepressant in a rat model of depression. The rats were subjected to a six-week period of unpredictable mild stress followed by melatonin treatment. Three groups of rats were included in this study: Controls (CON - no stress exposure), Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress (CUS) and CUS followed by melatonin (MT). Stressors consisted of exposure to rotation on a shaker, placement in a chamber maintained at 4°C, lights off for 3h, lights on overnight, exposure to an aversive odor, 45° tilted cages, food and water deprivation and crowding and isolated housing. Subsequently, the saline vehicle (CUS) or melatonin was administered at a dose of 10mg/kg for 14days period. Body weight and behavioral tests were used to evaluate depression-like behavior and its recovery following melatonin treatment. While body weight increases were significantly lower in rats exposed to CUS versus CON, body weights of the MT group increased significantly following melatonin treatment as compared with the CUS group. With regard to results obtained with behavioral assays indicative of depression, rapid and long-term functional recoveries in depression were observed in the MT as compared to the CUS group. The results indicate that not only does melatonin induce an antidepressant-like action within this rat model of depression, but does so with a rapid onset and prolonged efficacy. As most current treatments for depression require an extended period of administration, our current results suggest that melatonin may prove to be a particularly effect agent to promote a rapid onset and prolonged behavioral benefits in the treatment of depression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoran Sun
- Department of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166(#) Baotong West Street, 261053, PR China
| | - Mengting Wang
- Department of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166(#) Baotong West Street, 261053, PR China
| | - Yiqiang Wang
- School of Bioscience and Technology, Weifang Medical University, 7166(#) Baotong West Street, Weifang, Shandong, 261053, PR China
| | - Bo Lian
- School of Bioscience and Technology, Weifang Medical University, 7166(#) Baotong West Street, Weifang, Shandong, 261053, PR China
| | - Hongwei Sun
- Department of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166(#) Baotong West Street, 261053, PR China
| | - Gang Wang
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, Weifang Medical University, 7166(#) Baotong West Street, Weifang, Shandong, 261053, PR China
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Psychiatry and Centre for Reproduction Growth and Development, University of Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Lin Sun
- Department of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166(#) Baotong West Street, 261053, PR China; Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, Weifang Medical University, 7166(#) Baotong West Street, Weifang, Shandong, 261053, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sakakibara H, Torii Yasuda M, Shimoi K. Effects of environmental and social stressors on biological rhythms. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL FITNESS AND SPORTS MEDICINE 2016. [DOI: 10.7600/jpfsm.5.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kayoko Shimoi
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Tchekalarova J, Moyanova S, Fusco AD, Ngomba RT. The role of the melatoninergic system in epilepsy and comorbid psychiatric disorders. Brain Res Bull 2015; 119:80-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2015.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
|
7
|
Noseda ACD, Rodrigues LS, Targa ADS, Aurich MF, Vital MABF, Da Cunha C, Lima MMS. Putative role of monoamines in the antidepressant-like mechanism induced by striatal MT2 blockade. Behav Brain Res 2014; 275:136-45. [PMID: 25218873 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
It has been observed that the secretion pattern of melatonin is modified in Parkinson's disease (PD). Hence, it is hypothesized that dysregulations of melatonin MT2 receptors may be involved in the installation of depression in PD patients. Together with recent evidence based on the use of the intranigral rotenone model of PD, have led to the hypothesis that modulating the striatal MT2 receptor could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the antidepressant properties triggered. To further investigate this issue, male Wistar rats were infused with intranigral rotenone (12μg/μL) and seven days later subjected to a rapid eye movement sleep deprivation (REMSD) for 24h. After, we injected within the striatum the MT2 selective agonist, 8-M-PDOT (10μg/μL), the MT2 selective antagonist, 4-P-PDOT (5μg/μL) or vehicle. Subsequently, they were tested in the forced swimming test and were allowed to perform the sleep rebound (REB). Then, the rats were re-tested, and the striatum, hippocampus and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) were collected for neurochemical purposes. Results indicated substantial antidepressant effects promoted by the blockade of striatal MT2 receptors that were potentiated by REMSD. MT2 activation increased DA levels in the striatum and hippocampus, while MT2 blockade increase DA in the SNpc. 4-P-PDOT treatment of the rotenone REMSD group generated a decrement in 5-HT levels within the striatum, hippocampus and SNpc. However, increased 5-HT turnover was observed among these structures. Therefore, we demonstrated the neurochemical antidepressant effect induced by striatal MT2 blockage associated with REMSD in the rotenone model of PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Carolina D Noseda
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Lais S Rodrigues
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Adriano D S Targa
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Mariana F Aurich
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Maria A B F Vital
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Farmacologia do Sistema Nervoso Central, Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Cláudio Da Cunha
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Farmacologia do Sistema Nervoso Central, Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Marcelo M S Lima
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ramírez-Rodríguez G, Vega-Rivera NM, Oikawa-Sala J, Gómez-Sánchez A, Ortiz-López L, Estrada-Camarena E. Melatonin synergizes with citalopram to induce antidepressant-like behavior and to promote hippocampal neurogenesis in adult mice. J Pineal Res 2014; 56:450-61. [PMID: 24650119 DOI: 10.1111/jpi.12136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is affected in some neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression. Numerous evidence indicates that plasma levels of melatonin are decreased in depressed patients. Also, melatonin exerts positive effects on the hippocampal neurogenic process and on depressive-like behavior. In addition, antidepressants revert alterations of hippocampal neurogenesis present in models of depression following a similar time course to the improvement of behavior. In this study, we analyzed the effects of both, citalopram, a widely used antidepressant, and melatonin in the Porsolt forced swim test. In addition, we investigated the potential antidepressant role of the combination of melatonin and citalopram (MLTCITAL), its type of pharmacological interaction on depressive behavior, and its effect on hippocampal neurogenesis. Here, we found decreased immobility behavior in mice treated with melatonin (<14-33%) and citalopram (<17-30%). Additionally, the MLTCITAL combination also decreased immobility (<22-35%) in comparison with control mice, reflecting an antidepressant-like effect after 14 days of treatment. Moreover, MLTCITAL decreased plasma corticosterone levels (≤13%) and increased cell proliferation (>29%), survival (>39%), and the absolute number of -associated new neurons (>53%) in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. These results indicate that the MLTCITAL combination exerts synergism to induce an antidepressant-like action that could be related to the modulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis. This outcome opens the opportunity of using melatonin to promote behavioral benefits and hippocampal neurogenesis in depression and also supports the use of the MLTCITAL combination as an alternative to treat depression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Ramírez-Rodríguez
- Division of Clinical Research, Laboratory of Neurogenesis, National Institute of Psychiatry "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", México, D.F., México
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ouakki S, Mrabet FZE, Hessni AE, Mesfioui A, Pévet P, Ouichou A. Conversion of L-Tryptophan into Melatonin Is the Possible Action Pathway Involved in the Effect of L-Tryptophan on Antidepressant-Related Behavior in Female Rats: Analysis of the Influence of Treatment Duration. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.4236/jbbs.2013.34036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
10
|
Chassot JM, Longhini R, Gazarini L, Mello JCP, de Oliveira RMW. Preclinical evaluation of Trichilia catigua extracts on the central nervous system of mice. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 137:1143-1148. [PMID: 21801825 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2011] [Revised: 07/04/2011] [Accepted: 07/10/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Trichilia catigua preparations have been popularly used in Brazil as a tonic for the treatment of fatigue, stress, impotence, and deficiency of memory. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible antidepressant, anxiolytic, motor and cognitive effects of the crude extract (CE) or ethyl-acetate fraction (EAF) of Trichilia catigua. Analyses of the total phenolics and total tannins content, as well as the in vitro antioxidant activity of CE and EAF were also performed. MATERIALS AND METHODS CE (200-800 mg/kg) and EAF (100-400mg/kg) were orally administered to mice and 1h later the behavioral tests were performed. The free radical scavenging activity was measured by using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) method. RESULTS Single administration of CE (200-400 mg/kg) or EAF (100-400 mg/kg) did not change the behavior of the animals submitted to the elevated plus maze or their locomotor activity in the open field test. An antidepressant-like effect was detected with EAF (400 mg/kg) after acute administration. Both CE (800 mg/kg) and EAF (200 and 400 mg/kg), improve memory in mice as measured by an increased latency in the step-down inhibitory avoidance test. The EAF presented higher total phenolics and total tannins as compared to CE as well as it exhibited the best antioxidant activity. CONCLUSIONS The present results showed an in vitro antioxidant activity for EAF and suggested that it may be useful for cognitive improvement. It is possible that both functional and chemical activities are related.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janaine M Chassot
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, State University of Maringá, Av Colombo n 5790, 87020-900 Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kwon KJ, Kim JN, Kim MK, Lee J, Ignarro LJ, Kim HJ, Shin CY, Han SH. Melatonin synergistically increases resveratrol-induced heme oxygenase-1 expression through the inhibition of ubiquitin-dependent proteasome pathway: a possible role in neuroprotection. J Pineal Res 2011; 50:110-23. [PMID: 21073519 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.2010.00820.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Melatonin is an indoleamine secreted by the pineal gland as well as a plant-derived product, and resveratrol (RSV) is a naturally occurring polyphenol synthesized by a variety of plant species; both molecules act as a neuroprotector and antioxidant. Recent studies have demonstrated that RSV reduced the incidence of Alzheimer's disease and stroke, while melatonin supplementation was found to reduce the progression of the cognitive impairment in AD. The heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an inducible and redox-regulated enzyme that provides tissue-specific antioxidant effects. We assessed whether the co-administration of melatonin and RSV shows synergistic effects in terms of their neuroprotective properties through HO-1. RSV significantly increased the expression levels of HO-1 protein in a concentration-dependent manner both in primary cortical neurons and in astrocytes, while melatonin per se did not. Melatonin + RSV showed a synergistic increase in the expression levels of HO-1 protein but not in the HO-1 mRNA level compared to either melatonin or RSV alone, which is mediated by the activation of PI3K-Akt pathway. Treatment of melatonin + RSV significantly attenuated the neurotoxicity induced by H(2) O(2) in primary cortical neurons and also in organotypic hippocampal slice culture. The blockade of HO-1 induction by shRNA attenuated HO-1 induction by melatonin + RSV and hindered the neuroprotective effects against oxidative stress induced by H(2) O(2) . The treatment of MG132 + RSV mimicked the effects of melatonin + RSV, and melatonin + RSV inhibited ubiquitination of HO-1. These data suggest that melatonin potentiates the neuroprotective effect of RSV against oxidative injury, by enhancing HO-1 induction through inhibiting ubiquitination-dependent proteasome pathway, which may provide an effective means to treat neurodegenerative disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyoung Ja Kwon
- Departments of Neurology Pharmacology Rehabilitation, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kulkarni SK, Dhir A. Current investigational drugs for major depression. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2009; 18:767-88. [DOI: 10.1517/13543780902880850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|