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Huang L, Bai D, Su X. Altered expression of transfer RNAs and their possible roles in brain white matter injury. Neuroreport 2024; 35:536-541. [PMID: 38597261 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000002036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) can regulate cell behavior and are associated with neurological disorders. Here, we aimed to investigate the expression levels of tRNAs in oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) and their possible roles in the regulation of brain white matter injury (WMI). Newborn Sprague-Dawley rats (postnatal day 5) were used to establish a model that mimicked neonatal brain WMI. RNA-array analysis was performed to examine the expression of tRNAs in OPCs. psRNAtarget software was used to predict target mRNAs of significantly altered tRNAs. Gene ontology (GO) and KEGG were used to analyze the pathways for target mRNAs. Eighty-nine tRNAs were changed after WMI (fold change absolute ≥1.5, P < 0.01), with 31 downregulated and 58 upregulated. Among them, three significantly changed tRNAs were identified, with two being significantly increased (chr10.trna1314-ProTGG and chr2.trna2771-ProAGG) and one significantly decreased (chr10.trna11264-GlyTCC). Further, target mRNA prediction and GO/KEGG pathway analysis indicated that the target mRNAs of these tRNAs are mainly involved in G-protein coupled receptor signaling pathways and beta-alanine metabolism, which are both related to myelin formation. In summary, the expression of tRNAs in OPCs was significantly altered after brain WMI, suggesting that tRNAs may play important roles in regulating WMI. This improves the knowledge about WMI pathophysiology and may provide novel treatment targets for WMI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyi Huang
- Department of Orthodontics, West China College of Stomatology/State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Sichuan University
| | - Ding Bai
- Department of Orthodontics, West China College of Stomatology/State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Sichuan University
| | - Xiaojuan Su
- Department of Pediatrics/Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Pedroza-García KA, Calderón-Vallejo D, Quintanar JL. Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy: Perspectives of Neuroprotective and Neuroregenerative Treatments. Neuropediatrics 2022; 53:402-417. [PMID: 36030792 DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1755235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a serious condition that could have deleterious neurological outcomes, such as cerebral palsy, neuromotor disability, developmental disability, epilepsy, and sensitive or cognitive problems, and increase the risk of death in severe cases. Once HIE occurs, molecular cascades are triggered favoring the oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, and inflammation damage that promote cell death via apoptosis or necrosis. Currently, the therapeutic hypothermia is the standard of care in HIE; however, it has a small window of action and only can be used in children of more than 36 gestational weeks; for this reason, it is very important to develop new therapies to prevent the progression of the hypoxic-ischemic injury or to develop neuroregenerative therapies in severe HIE cases. The objective of this revision is to describe the emerging treatments for HIE, either preventing cell death for oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, or exacerbated inflammation, as well as describing a new therapeutic approach for neuroregeneration, such as mesenchymal stem cells, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and gonadotropin realizing hormone agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina A Pedroza-García
- Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México
| | - Denisse Calderón-Vallejo
- Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México.,Departamento de Morfología, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México
| | - J Luis Quintanar
- Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México
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Neuroprotective Potential of Carnosine in Cerebrovascular Diseases. Int J Pept Res Ther 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-021-10342-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Byun JC, Lee SR, Kim CS. Effects of carnosine and hypothermia combination therapy on hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in neonatal rats. Clin Exp Pediatr 2021; 64:422-428. [PMID: 33677856 PMCID: PMC8342879 DOI: 10.3345/cep.2020.01837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Carnosine has antioxidative and neuroprotective properties against hypoxic-ischemic (HI) brain injury. Hypothermia is used as a therapeutic tool for HI encephalopathy in newborn infants with perinatal asphyxia. However, the combined effects of these therapies are unknown. PURPOSE Here we investigated the effects of combined carnosine and hypothermia therapy on HI brain injury in neonatal rats. METHODS Postnatal day 7 (P7) rats were subjected to HI brain injury and randomly assigned to 4 groups: vehicle; carnosine alone; vehicle and hypothermia; and carnosine and hypothermia. Carnosine (250 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally administered at 3 points: immediately following HI injury, 24 hours later, and 48 hours later. Hypothermia was performed by placing the rats in a chamber maintained at 27°C for 3 hours to induce whole-body cooling. Sham-treated rats were also included as a normal control. The rats were euthanized for experiments at P10, P14, and P35. Histological and morphological analyses, in situ zymography, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling (TUNEL) assays, and immunofluorescence studies were conducted to investigate the neuroprotective effects of the various interventional treatments. RESULTS Vehicle-treated P10 rats with HI injury showed an increased infarct volume compared to sham-treated rats during the triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining study. Hematoxylin and eosin staining revealed that vehicle-treated P35 rats with HI injury had decreased brain volume in the affected hemisphere. Compared to the vehicle group, carnosine and hypothermia alone did not result in any protective effects against HI brain injury. However, a combination of carnosine and hypothermia effectively reduced the extent of brain damage. The results of in situ zymography, TUNEL assays, and immunofluorescence studies showed that neuroprotective effects were achieved with combination therapy only. CONCLUSION Carnosine and hypothermia may have synergistic neuroprotective effects against brain damage following HI injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Chul Byun
- Department of Pediatrics, Daegu Fatima Hospital, Daegu, Korea
| | - Seong Ryong Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, Keimyung University School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
| | - Chun Soo Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, Keimyung University School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
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Jozanović M, Sakač N, Sak-Bosnar M, Carrilho E. A simple and reliable new microchip electrophoresis method for fast measurements of imidazole dipeptides in meat from different animal species. Anal Bioanal Chem 2018; 410:4359-4369. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-1087-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Ahshin-Majd S, Zamani S, Kiamari T, Kiasalari Z, Baluchnejadmojarad T, Roghani M. Carnosine ameliorates cognitive deficits in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats: Possible involved mechanisms. Peptides 2016; 86:102-111. [PMID: 27777064 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2016.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Revised: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic patients are at increased risk to develop cognitive deficit and senile dementia. This study was planned to assess the benefits of chronic carnosine administration on prevention of learning and memory deterioration in streptozotocin (STZ)-diabetic rats and to explore some of the involved mechanisms. Rats were divided into 5 groups: i.e., control, carnosine100-treated control, diabetic, and carnosine-treated diabetics (50 and 100mg/kg). Carnosine was injected i.p. at doses of 50 or 100mg/kg for 7 weeks, started 1 week after induction of diabetes using streptozotocin. Treatment of diabetic rats with carnosine at a dose of 100mg/kg at the end of the study lowered serum glucose, improved spatial recognition memory in Y maze, improved retention and recall in elevated plus maze, and prevented reduction of step-through latency in passive avoidance task. Furthermore, carnosine at a dose of 100mg/kg reduced hippocampal acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, lowered lipid peroxidation, and improved superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense element glutathione (GSH), but not activity of catalase. Meanwhile, hippocampal level of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) decreased and level of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) increased upon treatment of diabetic group with carnosine at a dose of 100mg/kg. Taken together, chronic carnosine treatment could ameliorate learning and memory disturbances in STZ-diabetic rats through intonation of NF-κB/Nrf2/HO-1 signaling cascade, attenuation of astrogliosis, possible improvement of cholinergic function, and amelioration of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Zahra Kiasalari
- Neurophysiology Research Center, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran.
| | | | - Mehrdad Roghani
- Neurophysiology Research Center, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran.
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Neuroprotective actions of taurine on hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in neonatal rats. Brain Res Bull 2016; 124:295-305. [PMID: 27345710 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Revised: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Taurine is an abundant amino acid in the nervous system, which has been proved to possess antioxidation, osmoregulation and membrane stabilization. Previously it has been demonstrated that taurine exerts ischemic brain injury protective effect. This study was designed to investigate whether the protective effect of taurine has the possibility to be applied to treat neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain damage. Seven-day-old Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with left carotid artery ligation followed by exposure to 8% oxygen to generate the experimental group. The cerebral damage area was measured after taurine post-treatment with 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, Hematoxyline-Eosin (HE) staining and Nissl staining. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), myeloperoxtidase (MPO), ATP and Lactic Acid productions were assayed with ipsilateral hemisphere homogenates. Western-blot and immunofluorescence assay were processed to detect the expressions of AIF, Cyt C, Bax, Bcl-2 in brain. We found that taurine significantly reduced brain infarct volume and ameliorated morphological injury obviously reversed the changes of SOD, MDA, GSH-Px, T-AOC, ATP, MPO, and Lactic Acid levels. Compared with hypoxic-ischemic group, it showed marked reduction of AIF, Cyt C and Bax expressions and increase of Bcl-2 after post-treatment. We conclude that taurine possesses an efficacious neuroprotective effect after cerebral hypoxic-ischemic damage in neonatal rats.
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Formation of Aldehydic Phosphatidylcholines during the Anaerobic Decomposition of a Phosphatidylcholine Bearing the 9-Hydroperoxide of Linoleic Acid. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:8218439. [PMID: 27366754 PMCID: PMC4913024 DOI: 10.1155/2016/8218439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Revised: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Lipid oxidation-derived carbonyl compounds are associated with the development of various physiological disorders. Formation of most of these products has recently been suggested to require further reactions of oxygen with lipid hydroperoxides. However, in rat and human tissues, the formation of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal is greatly elevated during hypoxic/ischemic conditions. Furthermore, a previous study found an unexpected result that the decomposition of a phosphatidylcholine (PC) bearing the 13-hydroperoxide of linoleic acid under a nitrogen atmosphere afforded 9-oxononanoyl-PC rather than 13-oxo-9,11-tridecadienoyl-PC as the main aldehydic PC. In the present study, products of the anaerobic decomposition of a PC bearing the 9-hydroperoxide of linoleic acid were analysed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. 9-Oxononanoyl-PC (ONA-PC) and several well-known bioactive aldehydes including 12-oxo-9-hydroperoxy-(or oxo or hydroxy)-10-dodecenoyl-PCs were detected. Hydrolysis of the oxidized PC products, methylation of the acids obtained thereby, and subsequent gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy with electron impact ionization further confirmed structures of some of the key aldehydic PCs. Novel, hydroxyl radical-dependent mechanisms of formation of ONA-PC and peroxyl-radical dependent mechanisms of formation of the rest of the aldehydes are proposed. The latter mechanisms will mainly be relevant to tissue injury under hypoxic/anoxic conditions, while the former are relevant under both normoxia and hypoxia/anoxia.
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Carnosine decreased neuronal cell death through targeting glutamate system and astrocyte mitochondrial bioenergetics in cultured neuron/astrocyte exposed to OGD/recovery. Brain Res Bull 2016; 124:76-84. [PMID: 27040711 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2015] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we showed that carnosine upregulated the expression level of glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1), which has been recognized as an important participant in the astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle (ANLS), with ischemic model in vitro and in vivo. This study was designed to investigate the protective effect of carnosine on neuron/astrocyte co-cultures exposed to OGD/recovery, and to explore whether the ANLS or any other mechanism contributes to carnosine-induced neuroprotection on neuron/astrocyte. Co-cultures were treated with carnosine and exposed to OGD/recovery. Cell death and the extracellular levels of glutamate and GABA were measured. The mitochondrial respiration and glycolysis were detected by Seahorse Bioscience XF96 Extracellular Flux Analyzer. Results showed that carnosine decreased neuronal cell death, increased extracellular GABA level, and abolished the increase in extracellular glutamate and reversed the mitochondrial energy metabolism disorder induced by OGD/recovery. Carnosine also upregulated the mRNA level of neuronal glutamate transporter EAAC1 at 2h after OGD. Dihydrokainate, a specific inhibitor of GLT-1, decreased glycolysis but it did not affect mitochondrial respiration of the cells, and it could not reverse the increase in mitochondrial OXPHOS induced by carnosine in the co-cultures. The levels of mRNAs for monocarboxylate transporter1, 4 (MCT1, 4), which were expressed in astrocytes, and MCT2, the main neuronal MCT, were significantly increased at the early stage of recovery. Carnosine only partly reversed the increased expression of astrocytic MCT1 and MCT4. These results suggest that regulating astrocytic energy metabolism and extracellular glutamate and GABA levels but not the ANLS are involved in the carnosine-induced neuroprotection.
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Zhai X, Lin H, Chen Y, Chen X, Shi J, Chen O, Li J, Sun X. Hyperbaric oxygen preconditioning ameliorates hypoxia-ischemia brain damage by activating Nrf2 expression in vivo and in vitro. Free Radic Res 2016; 50:454-66. [PMID: 26729624 DOI: 10.3109/10715762.2015.1136411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate whether hyperbaric oxygen preconditioning (HBO-PC) could ameliorate hypoxia-ischemia brain damage (HIBD) by an increase of Nrf2 expression. P7 Sprague-Dawley rats (aged 7 d, n = 195) were used in two in vivo experiments, including BO-PC exposure experiments in non-HIBD models and treatment experiments in HIBD models. 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, Nissl Staining, and TUNEL staining were performed. And expressions of Nrf2, HO-1, and GSTs were measured. For in vitro studies, oxygen-glucose deprivation cells were established. Morphological and apoptotic staining and gene silencing of Nrf2 by siRNA transfection were investigated. For exposure experiments, HBO-PC for longer time increased the expression of Nrf2 significantly. And for treatment experiments, HBO-PC treatment significantly decreased infarction area, lessened neuronal injury, reduced apoptosis, and increased both the expression of Nrf2 and activities of its downstream proteins. Cytology tests confirmed effects of HBO-PC treatments. Besides, Nrf2 siRNA significantly reduced protective effects of HBO-PC. These observations demonstrated that an up-regulation of Nrf2 by HBO-PC might play an important role in the generation of tolerance against HIBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Zhai
- a Graduate Management Unit of Changhai Hospital Affiliated to the Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , PR China ;,b Department of Orthopedics , Changhai Hospital Affiliated to the Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , PR China
| | - Han Lin
- c Department of Gastroenterology , Changhai Hospital Affiliated to the Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , PR China
| | - Yu Chen
- c Department of Gastroenterology , Changhai Hospital Affiliated to the Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , PR China
| | - Xiao Chen
- b Department of Orthopedics , Changhai Hospital Affiliated to the Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , PR China
| | - Jiazi Shi
- a Graduate Management Unit of Changhai Hospital Affiliated to the Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , PR China
| | - Ouyang Chen
- a Graduate Management Unit of Changhai Hospital Affiliated to the Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , PR China
| | - Jiasi Li
- d Department of Neurology , Changhai Hospital Affiliated to the Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , PR China
| | - Xuejun Sun
- e Faculty of Naval Medicine , Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , PR China
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Rojas JJ, Deniz BF, Schuch CP, Carletti JV, Deckmann I, Diaz R, Matté C, dos Santos TM, Wyse AT, Netto CA, Pereira LO. Environmental stimulation improves performance in the ox-maze task and recovers Na+,K+-ATPase activity in the hippocampus of hypoxic-ischemic rats. Neuroscience 2015; 291:118-27. [PMID: 25617656 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Revised: 01/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In animal models, environmental enrichment (EE) has been found to be an efficient treatment for alleviating the consequences of neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI). However the potential for this therapeutic strategy and the mechanisms involved are not yet clear. The aim of present study is to investigate behavioral performance in the ox-maze test and Na+,K+-ATPase, catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities in the hippocampus of rats that suffered neonatal HI and were stimulated in an enriched environment. Seven-day-old rats were submitted to the HI procedure and divided into four groups: control maintained in standard environment (CTSE), control submitted to EE (CTEE), HI in standard environment (HISE) and HI in EE (HIEE). Animals were stimulated with EE for 9 weeks (1 h/day for 6 days/week) and then behavioral and biochemical parameters were evaluated. Present results indicate learning and memory in the ox-maze task were impaired in HI rats and this effect was recovered after EE. Hypoxic-ischemic event did not alter the Na+,K+-ATPase activity in the right hippocampus (ipsilateral to arterial occlusion). However, on the contralateral hemisphere, HI caused a decrease in this enzyme activity that was recovered by EE. The activities of GPx and CAT were not changed by HI in any group evaluated. In conclusion, EE was effective in recovering learning and memory impairment in the ox-maze task and Na+,K+-ATPase activity in the hippocampus caused by HI. The present data provide further support for the therapeutic potential of environmental stimulation after neonatal HI in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Rojas
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - B F Deniz
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - C P Schuch
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - J V Carletti
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - I Deckmann
- Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - R Diaz
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - C Matté
- Departamento de Bioquímica, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - T M dos Santos
- Departamento de Bioquímica, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - A T Wyse
- Departamento de Bioquímica, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - C A Netto
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Departamento de Bioquímica, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - L O Pereira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
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