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Yang A, Luo D, Jia Y, Liu Y, Zhang Z, Li S, Liu R, Zhou J, Wang J. Targeted delivery of AZD5363 to T-cell acute lymphocytic leukemia by mSiO 2-Au nanovehicles. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2023; 230:113505. [PMID: 37574619 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2023.113505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
T-cell acute lymphocytic leukemia (T-ALL) is the most common cancer in children, with a low survival rate because of drug resistance and a high recurrence rate. Targeted delivery of chemotherapy drugs can reduce their side effects and improve their efficacy. The abnormality of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B/ mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR) pathway plays a key role in T-ALL occurrence. AZD5363 is a selective Akt inhibitor with promising therapeutic potential for tumors encoded by the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. However, the toxicity and side effects have limited its application in treating T-ALL. This study aimed to design a delivery system for targeting AZD5363 to T-ALL by sgc8c aptamer designed as mesoporous silica (mSiO2) decorated with Au nanoparticles. The cell-specific targeting and cytotoxicity of mSiO2-Au-AZD5363-Apt were investigated. The mSiO2-Au nanovehicles were found feasible for AZD5363 delivery, with high loading efficiency and pH-responsive release in the acidic lysosome. More importantly, mSiO2-Au-AZD5363-Apt nanovehicles could specifically recognize and enter T-ALL cells in vitro and in vivo, effectively inhibiting the proliferation of CCRF-CEM cells. In conclusion, mSiO2-Au-AZD5363-Apt provided an effective therapeutic method for the targeted treatment of T-ALL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiyun Yang
- Translational Medicine Laboratory, Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Child Development and Nutriomics, Capital Institute of Pediatrics, Beijing 100020, China
| | - Danqing Luo
- Department of Pediatric Hematology Oncology, Children's Hospital, Capital Institute of Pediatrics, Beijing 100020, China
| | - Yuxuan Jia
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Yuxin Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Zuo Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental & Viral Oncology, College of Life Science & Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Shen Li
- Translational Medicine Laboratory, Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Child Development and Nutriomics, Capital Institute of Pediatrics, Beijing 100020, China
| | - Rong Liu
- Department of Pediatric Hematology Oncology, Children's Hospital, Capital Institute of Pediatrics, Beijing 100020, China
| | - Jing Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China.
| | - Jianhua Wang
- Translational Medicine Laboratory, Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Child Development and Nutriomics, Capital Institute of Pediatrics, Beijing 100020, China.
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Activation of c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase, a Potential Therapeutic Target in Autoimmune Arthritis. Cells 2020; 9:cells9112466. [PMID: 33198301 PMCID: PMC7696795 DOI: 10.3390/cells9112466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) is a critical mediator involved in various physiological processes, such as immune responses, and the pathogenesis of various diseases, including autoimmune disorders. JNK is one of the crucial downstream signaling molecules of various immune triggers, mainly proinflammatory cytokines, in autoimmune arthritic conditions, mainly including rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriatic arthritis. The activation of JNK is regulated in a complex manner by upstream kinases and phosphatases. Noticeably, different subtypes of JNKs behave differentially in immune responses. Furthermore, aside from biologics targeting proinflammatory cytokines, small-molecule inhibitors targeting signaling molecules such as Janus kinases can act as very powerful therapeutics in autoimmune arthritis patients unresponsiveness to conventional synthetic antirheumatic drugs. Nevertheless, despite these encouraging therapies, a population of patients with an inadequate therapeutic response to all currently available medications still remains. These findings identify the critical signaling molecule JNK as an attractive target for investigation of the immunopathogenesis of autoimmune disorders and for consideration as a potential therapeutic target for patients with autoimmune arthritis to achieve better disease control. This review provides a useful overview of the roles of JNK, how JNK is regulated in immunopathogenic responses, and the potential of therapeutically targeting JNK in patients with autoimmune arthritis.
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Fu X, Song G, Ni R, Liu H, Xu Z, Zhang D, He F, Huang G. LncRNA-H19 silencing suppresses synoviocytes proliferation and attenuates collagen-induced arthritis progression by modulating miR-124a. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2020; 60:430-440. [DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/keaa395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
Long non-coding RNA H19 (lncRNA-H19) is highly expressed in fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) from patients with RA. The present study aimed to clarify the pathological significance and regulatory mechanisms of lncRNA-H19 in FLS.
Methods
Mice with CIA were locally injected with LV-shH19. The progression of CIA was explored by measuring arthritic index (AI), paw thickness (PT) and histologic analysis. The growth and cell cycle of human synoviocyte MH7A were assessed by CCK-8 and flow cytometric analysis. The putative binding sites between lncRNA-H19 and miR-124a were predicted online, and the binding was identified by luciferase assay. RT-qPCR, Western blot and luciferase assay were performed to explore the molecular mechanisms between liver X receptor (LXR), lncRNA-H19, miR-124a and its target genes.
Results
The expression of lncRNA-H19 was closely associated with the proliferation of synoviocytes and knockdown of lncRNA-H19 significantly ameliorated the progression of CIA, reflected by decreased AI, PT and cartilage destruction. Notably, lncRNA-H19 competitively bound to miR-124a, which directly targets CDK2 and MCP-1. It was confirmed that lncRNA-H19 regulates the proliferation of synoviocytes by acting as a sponge of miR-124a to modulate CDK2 and MCP-1 expression. Furthermore, the agonists of LXR inhibited lncRNA-H19-mediated miR-124a-CDK2/MCP-1 signalling pathway in synoviocytes. The ‘lncRNA-H19-miR-124a-CDK2/MCP-1’ axis plays an important role in LXR anti-arthritis.
Conclusion
Regulation of the miR-124a-CDK2/MCP-1 pathway by lncRNA-H19 plays a crucial role in the proliferation of FLS. Targeting this axis has therapeutic potential in the treatment of RA and may represent a novel strategy for RA treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Fu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Science
| | - Guojing Song
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Science
| | - Rongrong Ni
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Science
| | - Han Liu
- Department of Emergency, Southwest Hospital
| | - Zhizhen Xu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Science
| | - Dinglin Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, College of Basic Medical Science, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Fengtian He
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Science
| | - Gang Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Science
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Pal Y, Bandyopadhyay N, Pal RS, Ahmed S, Bandopadhyay S. Perspective and Potential of A2A and A3 Adenosine Receptors as Therapeutic Targets for the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis. Curr Pharm Des 2019; 25:2859-2874. [DOI: 10.2174/1381612825666190710111658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Adenosine is a purine nucleoside which is an effective controller of inflammation. The inflammatory effect of adenosine is expressed via its four receptor subtypes viz. A1, A2A, A2B and A3. The various inflammatory conditions including rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are initiated by adenosine receptors of which A2A and A3 play a vital role. RA primarily is an auto-immune disorder which is manifested as chronic inflammation in the synovial lining of joints. In order to develop an effective treatment, the role of cytokines, IL–1, TNF-α and IL–6 is crucial. Besides, the knowledge of PI3K-PKB/Akt and NF-kB signaling pathway is also important to understand the antiinflammatory targets. Methotrexate along with various other molecules like, NSAIDs and DMARDs are presently used as treatment lines for controlling RA. The enhanced knowledge of the preclinical stages and pathogenesis along with recent potent therapeutics raises the hopes that RA can be prevented in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogendra Pal
- Department of Pharmacy, Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology, Bhauti, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh 209305, India
| | - Nabamita Bandyopadhyay
- Molecular Biology Division, National Institute of Malarial Research (NIMR), Dwarka, New Delhi, Delhi 110077, India
| | - Rashmi S. Pal
- Department of Pharmacy, Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology, Bhauti, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh 209305, India
| | - Sarfaraz Ahmed
- Global Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kashipur, Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand 244713, India
| | - Shantanu Bandopadhyay
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Naraina Vidya Peeth Group of Institutions, Panki, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh 208020, India
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Anti-inflammatory and anti-osteoarthritis effects of Cm-02 and Ck-02. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2019; 517:155-163. [PMID: 31353084 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common degenerative joint disease characterized by progressive deterioration of articular cartilage. There have been reports that small molecule inhibitors have anti-osteoarthritis effects; however, the effects of 3-(4-chloro-2-fluorophenyl)-6-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-2H-benzo[e] [1,3]oxazine-2,4(3H)-dione (Cm-02) and 6-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-3-(3,4-difluorophenyl)-2H-benzo[e] [1,3]oxazine-2,4(3H)-dione (Ck-02), small molecule inhibitors which share many structural similarities with quercetin (a potent anti-inflammatory flavonoid), remain unclear. In this study, TNF-α-stimulated porcine and human chondrocyte models were used to investigate the inhibitory effects of Cm-02 and Ck-02 on the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-OA effects. TNF-α was used to stimulate porcine and human chondrocytes to mimic immunomodulatory potency in-vitro. Anti-osteoarthritic effects were characterized in terms of protein and mRNA levels associated with the pathogenesis of OA. We also examined (1) the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)-nitric oxide (NO) system in cultured chondrocytes, (2) matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in cultured chondrocytes, and (3) aggrecan degradation in cartilage explants. Finally, we tested the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1), and activate the protein-1 (AP-1), and we tested the signal transduction and activation of transcription-3 (STAT-3). Our results indicate that, in chondrocytes, Cm-02 and Ck-02 inhibit TNF-α induced NO production, iNOS, MMP, the expression of disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS), and the enzyme activity of MMP-13. Furthermore, both Cm-02 and Ck-02 were found to stimulate TNF-α, which has been shown to suppress the activation of several transcription factors, including NF-κB, STAT-3, and IRF-1 in porcine and human chondrocytes. Cm-02 and Ck-02 were also found to help prevent the release of proteoglycans from cartilage explants. Our findings demonstrate that both Cm-02 and Ck-02 have potent anti-inflammatory activities and the ability to protect cartilage in an OA cell model. These findings indicate that Cm-02 and Ck-02 have the potential to be further developed for the therapeutic treatment of OA.
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Caulley L, Quimby A, Karsh J, Ahrari A, Tse D, Kontorinis G. Autoimmune arthritis in Ménière’s disease: A systematic review of the literature. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2018; 48:141-147. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2017.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Arthroprotective Effects of Cf-02 Sharing Structural Similarity with Quercetin. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19051453. [PMID: 29757957 PMCID: PMC5983747 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19051453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we synthesized hundreds of analogues based on the structure of small-molecule inhibitors (SMIs) that were previously identified in our laboratory with the aim of identifying potent yet safe compounds for arthritis therapeutics. One of the analogues was shown to share structural similarity with quercetin, a potent anti-inflammatory flavonoid present in many different fruits and vegetables. We investigated the immunomodulatory effects of this compound, namely 6-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-3-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-2H-benzo[e][1,3]oxazine-2,4(3H)-dione (Cf-02), in a side-by-side comparison with quercetin. Chondrocytes were isolated from pig joints or the joints of patients with osteoarthritis that had undergone total knee replacement surgery. Several measures were used to assess the immunomodulatory potency of these compounds in tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α)-stimulated chondrocytes. Characterization included the protein and mRNA levels of molecules associated with arthritis pathogenesis as well as the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)–nitric oxide (NO) system and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in cultured chondrocytes and proteoglycan, and aggrecan degradation in cartilage explants. We also examined the activation of several important transcription factors, including nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1), signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT-3), and activator protein-1 (AP-1). Our overall results indicate that the immunomodulatory potency of Cf-02 is fifty-fold more efficient than that of quercetin without any indication of cytotoxicity. When tested in vivo using the induced edema method, Cf-02 was shown to suppress inflammation and cartilage damage. The proposed method shows considerable promise for the identification of candidate disease-modifying immunomodulatory drugs and leads compounds for arthritis therapeutics.
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Mei WY, Yu MJ, Yao S, Wang KL, Yao RS. Anti-inflammatory Effects of a Small Molecule Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor Antagonist on Adjuvant-Induced Rheumatoid Arthritis in Rats. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2018; 66:410-415. [PMID: 29415905 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c17-00887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The anti-inflammatory effects of (R)-2-(1H-Imidazol-1-yl) ethyl-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-2-(2-p-tolylacetamido)propanamide (RH-1402), a previous designed small molecule Gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) antagonist were evaluated in adjuvant-induced arthritic model of rats, and the inhibitory effect on neutrophil migration induced by GRP was determined by a transwell system experiment in vitro. The arthritis was induced by injection of Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) containing 10 mg/mL of heat killed mycobacterium into the left hind footpad. Experimental rats were randomly divided into 6 groups, including control, placebo, positive control group, RH-1402 of low/middle/high dose group. Disease incidence and severity was evaluated through scoring of the paw edema and histologic features of joint synovial. Blood of all experimental rats was collected for interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) cytokine levels. A transwell system was used to investigate whether RH-1402 would inhibit neutrophils migrating up a gradient of GRP in vitro. RH-1402 (5 and 10 mg/kg) significantly decreased adjuvant induced increased arthritis index during the administration period (days 14-20). Significant inhibition of joint synovial histological features can be found in the RH-1402 treated group, including alleviated Hyperplasia, Inflammatory of infiltration and activation of pannus formation. It also suppressed TNF-α and IL-1β level. Five and 10 mg/kg of RH-1402 significantly inhibited the effect of GRP on neutrophil migration with a dose dependent relationship. These findings indicate that RH-1402 have potential protective anti-inflammatory effects on experimental models of arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Yi Mei
- School of Biological and Medical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology
| | - Ming-Jun Yu
- School of Biological and Medical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology
| | - Sen Yao
- School of Biological and Medical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology
| | - Kui-Ling Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine
| | - Ri-Sheng Yao
- School of Biological and Medical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology.,Engineering Research Center of Bio-process, Ministry of Education, PRC, Hefei University of Technology
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Drug discovery effectiveness from the standpoint of therapeutic mechanisms and indications. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2017; 17:19-33. [PMID: 29075002 DOI: 10.1038/nrd.2017.194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The productivity of the pharmaceutical industry has been widely discussed in recent years, particularly with regard to concerns that substantial expenditures on research and development have failed to translate into approved drugs. Various analyses of this productivity challenge have focused on aspects such as attrition rates at particular clinical phases or the physicochemical properties of drug candidates, but relatively little attention has been paid to how the industry has performed from the standpoint of the choice of therapeutic mechanisms and their intended indications. This article examines what the pharmaceutical industry has achieved in this respect by analysing comprehensive industry-wide data on the mechanism-indication pairs that have been investigated during the past 20 years. Our findings indicate several points and trends that we hope will be useful in understanding and improving the productivity of the industry, including areas in which the industry has had substantial success or failure and the relative extent of novelty in completed and ongoing projects.
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Lai JH, Lin YL, Hsieh SL. Pharmacological intervention for dengue virus infection. Biochem Pharmacol 2017; 129:14-25. [PMID: 28104437 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) infection has a considerable health impact in tropical and subtropical countries worldwide. Escalation of infection rates greatly increases morbidity and mortality, most commonly from deaths due to dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome. Although the development of an effective, long-lasting vaccine has been a major aim for control and prevention of DENV infection, the currently licensed vaccine has limitations and is less than satisfactory. Thus, there remains an important need to identify effective and tolerable medications for treatment of DENV-infected patients both in the early phase, to prevent progression to fatal outcomes, and to minimize deaths after patients develop severe complications. This review will address several specific points, including (1) approaches to identify anti-DENV medications, (2) recent advances in the development of potential compounds targeting DENV infection, (3) experience with clinical trials of regimens for DENV infection, (4) some available medications of potential for clinical trials against DENV infection, (5) reasons for unsuccessful outcomes and challenges of anti-DENV treatments, and (6) directions for developing or selecting better anti-DENV strategies. This review provides useful guidance for clinicians selecting drugs for DENV-infected patients with severe manifestations or potential fatal disease progression, and for basic researchers seeking to develop effective anti-DENV regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenn-Haung Lai
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC; Graduate Institute of Medical Science, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Yi-Ling Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shie-Liang Hsieh
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taiwan, ROC; Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taiwan, ROC; Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
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Wendling D, Prati C. Kinases inhibitors and small molecules: A new treatment tool for axial spondyloarthropathy? Joint Bone Spine 2016; 83:473-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbspin.2016.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Sensitive approach for voltammetric determination of anti-inflammatory drug sulfasalazine using liquid mercury free silver solid amalgam electrode. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00706-016-1823-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Ho LJ, Luo SF, Lai JH. Biological effects of interleukin-6: Clinical applications in autoimmune diseases and cancers. Biochem Pharmacol 2015; 97:16-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2015.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Hobeika E, Nielsen PJ, Medgyesi D. Signaling mechanisms regulating B-lymphocyte activation and tolerance. J Mol Med (Berl) 2015; 93:143-58. [PMID: 25627575 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-015-1252-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
It is becoming more and more accepted that, in addition to producing autoantibodies, B lymphocytes have other important functions that influence the development of autoimmunity. For example, autoreactive B cells are able to produce inflammatory cytokines and activate pathogenic T cells. B lymphocytes can react to extracellular signals with a range of responses from anergy to autoreactivity. The final outcome is determined by the relative contribution of signaling events mediated by activating and inhibitory pathways. Besides the B cell antigen receptor (BCR), several costimulatory receptors expressed on B cells can also induce B cell proliferation and survival, or regulate antibody production. These include CD19, CD40, the B cell activating factor receptor, and Toll-like receptors. Hyperactivity of these receptors clearly contributes to breaking B-cell tolerance in several autoimmune diseases. Inhibitors of these activating signals (including protein tyrosine phosphatases, deubiquitinating enzymes and several adaptor proteins) are crucial to control B-cell activation and maintain B-cell tolerance. In this review, we summarize the inhibitory signaling mechanisms that counteract B-cell activation triggered by the BCR and the coreceptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias Hobeika
- BIOSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg and Department for Molecular Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
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