Evolution of maple syrup urine disease in patients diagnosed by newborn screening versus late diagnosis

Treatment Outcomes for Maple Syrup Urine Disease Detected by Newborn Screening

OBJECTIVE

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD), a life-threatening metabolic disorder, is included in newborn screening (NBS) programs worldwide. The study aims to evaluate the impact of NBS on the long-term outcome of MSUD patients.

METHODS

We performed a prospective, national, multicenter, observational study.

RESULTS

In the studied NBS cohort (N = 33; 22 classic MSUD [cMSUD], 11 variant MSUD [vMSUD]; median age at last visit 10.4 years), 32 (97%) patients survived, 58% of them had normal cognitive functions (median IQ 87). Initial peak leucine increased linearly with age in cMSUD (median: 1712 µmol/L), but not in vMSUD. Global IQ correlated inversely with the initial peak leucine concentration (P = .04; β = -0.0081) and the frequency of decompensations (P = .02; β = -9.133). A cluster analysis identified 2 subgroups differing in their long-term metabolic control (median leucine concentration: 162 vs 278 µmol/L; P < .001). In cMSUD, lower leucine concentrations were associated with a higher IQ (95.5 vs 80; P = .008). Liver transplantation (median age 5.8 years) was not associated with better cognitive outcome. NBS is highly sensitive for cMSUD, but vMSUD might be missed (N = 2 missed by NBS).

CONCLUSIONS

NBS and the early start of treatment improve survival and long-term outcome in individuals with cMSUD. Disease severity is an important modifier of outcome; however, the time to NBS report and the quality of long-term metabolic control had an independent impact on cognitive outcome, highlighting the importance of an early diagnosis and the quality of treatment.

Paediatric clinical study of 3D printed personalised medicines for rare metabolic disorders

Rare diseases are infrequent, but together they affect up to 6-10 % of the world's population, mainly children. Patients require precise doses and strict adherence to avoid metabolic or cardiac failure in some cases, which cannot be addressed in a reliable way using pharmaceutical compounding. 3D printing (3DP) is a disruptive technology that allows the real-time personalization of the dose and the modulation of the dosage form to adapt the medicine to the therapeutic needs of each patient. 3D printed chewable medicines containing amino acids (citrulline, isoleucine, valine, and isoleucine and valine combinations) were prepared in a hospital setting, and the efficacy and acceptability were evaluated in comparison to conventional compounded medicines in six children. The inclusion of new flavours (lemon, vanilla and peach) to obtain more information on patient preferences and the implementation of a mobile app to obtain patient feedback in real-time was also used. The 3D printed medicines controlled amino acid levels within target levels as well as the conventional medicines. The deviation of citrulline levels was narrower and closer within the target concentration with the chewable formulations. According to participants' responses, the chewable formulations were well accepted and can improve adherence and quality of life. For the first time, 3DP enabled two actives to be combined in the same formulation, reducing the number of administrations. This study demonstrated the benefits of preparing 3D printed personalized treatments for children diagnosed with rare metabolic disorders using a novel technology in real clinical practice.

Newborn screening of maple syrup urine disease and the effect of early diagnosis

BACKGROUND

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is a rare disease for which newborn screening (NBS) is feasible but not universally applied in China. We shared our experiences with MSUD NBS.

METHODS

Tandem mass spectrometry-based NBS for MSUD was implemented in January 2003, and diagnostic methods included urine organic acid analysis via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and genetic analysis.

RESULTS

Six MSUD patients were identified from 1.3 million newborns, yielding an incidence of 1:219,472, in Shanghai, China. The areas under the curve (AUCs) of total leucine (Xle), Xle/phenylalanine ratio, and Xle/alanine ratio were all 1.000. Some amino acid and acylcarnitine concentrations were markedly low in MSUD patients. 47 MSUD patients identified here and in other centers were investigated, which included 14 patients identified by NBS and 33 patients diagnosed clinically. Forty-four patients were subclassified into classic (n = 29), intermediate (n = 11) and intermittent (n = 4) subtypes. Due to earlier diagnosis and treatment, screened classic patients showed a higher survival rate (62.5%, 5/8) than clinically diagnosed classic patients (5.2%, 1/19). Overall, 56.8% (25/44) of MSUD patients and 77.8% (21/27) of classic patients carried variants in the BCKDHB gene. Among 61 identified genetic variants, 16 novel variants were identified.

CONCLUSION

MSUD NBS in Shanghai, China, enabled earlier detection and increased survivorship in the screened population.

Leucine tolerance in children with MSUD is not correlated with plasma leucine levels at diagnosis

OBJECTIVES

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is an inborn metabolic disease. The nutritional treatment with restricted intake of branched chain amino acids and prevention of leucine toxicity are crucially important for a favorable outcome. The aim of this study is to analyze the relation of blood leucine levels at diagnosis with future leucine tolerances, to determine whether any prediction about the future leucine tolerances or plasma leucine levels is possible by evaluating blood leucine levels at diagnosis.

METHODS

The study group consisted of 45 MSUD patients. Leucine levels at diagnosis were compared with age at diagnosis, leucine tolerances, maximum leucine levels/ages, and average blood leucine levels.

RESULTS

The mean plasma leucine level at diagnosis was 2,355.47 ± 1,251.7 μmol/L (ref: 55-164 μmol/L). The median age at diagnosis was 17 days. Leucine tolerances per kg body weight declined until the age of 8 years and stabilized subsequently. The average age of maximum leucine level during follow-up was 3.14 ± 1.92 years, and the mean maximum lifetime plasma leucine level on follow-up was 1,452.13 ± 621.38 μmol/L. The leucine levels at diagnosis did not have any significant relationship with lifetime leucine tolerances, maximum plasma leucine levels or mean plasma leucine levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The plasma leucine levels at diagnosis did not have a predictive value for later leucine tolerances or plasma leucine levels. The maximum lifetime leucine level is likely to happen within the first 3 years of life, underlining the importance of good metabolic control and compliance to dietary treatment at early ages.

Identification of gene mutations in six Chinese patients with maple syrup urine disease

Background: Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is a rare autosomal recessive amino acid metabolic disease. This study is to identify the pathogenic genetic factors of six cases of MUSD and evaluates the application value of high-throughput sequencing technology in the early diagnosis of MUSD. Methods: Clinical examination was carried out for patients and used blood tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), urine gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS), and the application of high-throughput sequencing technology for detection. Validate candidate mutations by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-Sanger sequencing technology. Bioinformatics software analyzed the variants' pathogenicity. Using Swiss PDB Viewer software to predict the effect of mutation on the structure of BCKDHA and BCKDHB proteins. Result: A total of six MSUD patients were diagnosed, including four males and two females. Nine variants were found in three genes of six MSUD families by high-throughput sequencing, including four missense mutations: c.659C>T(p.A220V), c.818C>T(p.T273I), c.1134C>G(p.D378E), and c.1006G>A(p.G336S); two non-sense mutations: c.1291C>T(p.R431*) and c.331C>T(p.R111*); three deletion mutations: c.550delT (p.S184Pfs*46), c.718delC (p.P240Lfs*14), and c.795delG (p.N266Tfs*64). Sanger sequencing's results were consistent with the high-throughput sequencing. The bioinformatics software revealed that the mutations were harmful, and the prediction results of Swiss PDB Viewer suggest that variation affects protein conformation. Conclusion: This study identified nine pathogenic variants in the BCKDHA, BCKDHB, and DBT genes in six MSUD families, including two novel pathogenic variants in the BCKDHB gene, which enriched the genetic mutational spectrum of the disease. High-throughput sequencing is essential for the MSUD's differential diagnosis, early treatment, and prenatal diagnosis.

Acute hemodialysis therapy in neonates with inborn errors of metabolism

BACKGROUND

Inborn errors of metabolism (IEM), including organic acidemias and urea cycle defects, are characterized by systemic accumulation of toxic metabolites with deleterious effect on the developing brain. While hemodialysis (HD) is most efficient in clearing IEM-induced metabolic toxins, data regarding its use during the neonatal period is scarce.

METHODS

We retrospectively summarize our experience with HD in 20 neonates with IEM-induced metabolic intoxication (seven with maple syrup urine disease, 13 with primary hyperammonia), over a 16-year period, between 2004 and 2020. All patients presented with IEM-induced neurologic deterioration at 48 h to 14 days post-delivery, and were managed with HD in a pediatric intensive care setting. HD was performed through an internal jugular acute double-lumen catheter (6.5-7.0 French), using an AK-200S (Gambro, Sweden) dialysis machine and tubing, with F3 or FXpaed (Fresenius, Germany) dialyzers.

RESULTS

Median (interquartile range) age and weight at presentation were 5 (3-8) days and 2830 (2725-3115) g, respectively. Two consecutive HD sessions decreased the mean leucine levels from 2281 ± 631 to 179 ± 91 μmol/L (92.1% reduction) in MSUD patients, and the mean ammonia levels from 955 ± 444 to 129 ± 55 μmol/L (86.5% reduction), in patients with hyperammonemia. HD was uneventful in all patients, and led to marked clinical improvement in 17 patients (85%). Three patients (15%) died during the neonatal period, and four died during long-term follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our results indicate that HD is safe, effective, and life-saving for most neonates with severe IEM-induced metabolic intoxication, when promptly performed by an experienced and multidisciplinary team. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Metronidazole-Induced Encephalopathy in a 16-Year-Old Girl with Crohn’s Disease: Case Report and Review of the Pediatric Literature

Metronidazole-induced encephalopathy (MIE) is a rare and unpredictable complication that is most commonly reported in adults. Here, we present the case of MIE in a patient treated with rectal, oral, and intravenous metronidazole. This is the first case of MIE reported after suppositories. A 16-year-old girl with Crohn’s disease treated with mesalazine and exclusive enteral nutrition was operated on due to perianal fistulas and abscesses. She received oral metronidazole for 25 days and rectal metronidazole for 15 days as an adjuvant before surgery. Moreover, 2.5 g of intravenous metronidazole was administrated during the perioperative period. The second day after the surgery, symptoms of cerebellar syndrome appeared. She presented with an inability to coordinate balance and gait. Although she showed accurate verbal responses, her speech was slow, slurred, and scanning. The finger–nose test was positive. The T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging revealed an increased symmetrical signal within the dentate nuclei of the cerebellum and in the corpus callosum. The changes were characterized by restricted diffusion. Based on the clinical picture and magnetic resonance imaging findings, MIE was diagnosed. Treatment with metronidazole was discontinued. The cumulative dose of metronidazole that she received for 29 days was 54 g: 38 g p.o., 13.5 g p.r., and 2.5 g i,v. The first symptoms appeared on the 28th day of antibiotic therapy after receiving 52 g of metronidazole. The neurological symptoms resolved after six days; however, three days after the resolution, paresthesia appeared in the distal phalanges of both feet and lasted for approximately two months. Our report highlights that neurologic symptoms related to metronidazole treatment should raise the suspicion of MIE.

Diagnosis of inborn errors of metabolism within the expanded newborn screening in the Madrid region

We present the results of our experience in the diagnosis of inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) since the Expanded Newborn Screening was implemented in our Region. Dried blood samples were collected 48 h after birth. Amino acids and acylcarnitines were quantitated by mass spectrometry (MS)/MS. Newborns with alterations were referred to the clinical centers for follow‐up. Biochemical and molecular genetic studies for confirmation of a disease were performed. In the period 2011 to 2019, 592 822 children were screened: 902 of them were referred for abnormal results. An IEM was confirmed in 222 (1/2670): aminoacidopathies: 89 hyperphenylalaninemia (HPA) (51 benign HPA, 32 phenylketonuria, 4 DNAJC12 defect, and 2 primapterinuria), 6 hypermethioninemia, 3 tyrosinemia type 1 (TYR‐1), 1 TYR‐3, 4 maple syrup urine disease (MSUD), 2 branched‐chain amino acid transferase 2 deficiency, 2 homocystinuria, 1 cystinuria, 2 ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) deficiency, 2 citrullinemia type I (CTLN1); FAO defects: 43 medium‐chain acyl‐CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCADD), 13 very long‐chain acyl‐CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, 2 long‐chain 3‐hydroxyacyl‐CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (LCHADD), 1 multiple acyl‐coA dehydrogenation deficiency, 11 systemic primary carnitine deficiency, 2 carnitine palmitoyltransferase type 2 (CPT‐II) deficiency, 1 CPT‐I deficiency; organic acidurias: 12 glutaric aciduria type 1 (GA‐1), 4 methylmalonic acidemia (MMA), 7 MMA including combined cases with homocystinuria (MMAHC), 6 propionic acidemia (PA), 7 3‐methylcrotonyl‐CoA carboxylase, 1 3‐hydroxy‐3‐methylglutaryl‐CoA lyase deficiency lyase deficiency. Only 19 infants (8.5%) were symptomatic at newborn screening result (1 LCHADD, 5 PA, 1 CPT‐II deficiency, 1 MMA, 3 MMAHC, 2 MSUD, 2 OTC deficiency, 1 CTLN1, 1 MCADD, 2 TYR‐1). No false negative cases were identified. Genetic diagnosis was conclusive in all biochemically confirmed cases, except for two infants with HPA, identifying pathogenic variants in 32 different genes. The conditions with the highest incidence were HPA (1/6661) and MCAD deficiencies (1/13 787).

Genetic analysis by targeted next-generation sequencing and novel variation identification of maple syrup urine disease in Chinese Han population

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder that affects the degradation of branched chain amino acids (BCAAs). Only a few cases of MSUD have been documented in Mainland China. In this report, 8 patients (4 females and 4 males) with MSUD from 8 unrelated Chinese Han families were diagnosed at the age of 6 days to 4 months. All the coding regions and exon/intron boundaries of BCKDHA, BCDKHB, DBT and DLD genes were analyzed by targeted NGS in the 8 MSUD pedigrees. Targeted NGS revealed 2 pedigrees with MSUD Ia, 5 pedigrees with Ib, 1 pedigree with MSUD II. Totally, 13 variants were detected, including 2 variants (p.Ala216Val and p.Gly281Arg) in BCKDHA gene, 10 variants (p.Gly95Ala, p.Ser171Pro, p.Phe175Leu, p.Arg183Trp, p.Lys222Thr, p.Arg285Ter, p.Arg111Ter, p.S184Pfs*46, p.Arg170Cys, p.I160Ffs*25) in BCKDHB gene, 1 variant (p.Arg431Ter) in DBT gene. In addition, 4 previously unidentified variants (p.Gly281Arg in BCKDHA gene, p.Ser171Pro, p.Gly95Ala and p.Lys222Thr in BCKDHB gene) were identified. NGS plus Sanger sequencing detection is effective and accurate for gene diagnosis. Computational structural modeling indicated that these novel variations probably affect structural stability and considered as likely pathogenic variants.

Maple syrup urine disease: Clinical outcomes, metabolic control, and genotypes in a screened population after four decades of newborn bloodspot screening in the Republic of Ireland

Since 1972, 18 patients (10 females/8 males) have been detected by newborn bloodspot screening (NBS) with neonatal-onset maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) in Ireland. Patients were stratified into three clusters according to clinical outcome at the time of data collection, including developmental, clinical, and IQ data. A fourth cluster comprised of two early childhood deaths; a third patient died as an adult. We present neuroimaging and electroencephalography together with clinical and biochemical data. Incidence of MSUD (1972-2018) was 1 in 147 975. Overall good clinical outcomes were achieved with 15/18 patients alive and with essentially normal functioning (with only the lowest performing cluster lying beyond a single SD on their full scale intelligence quotient). Molecular genetic analysis revealed genotypes hitherto not reported, including a possible digenic inheritance state for the BCKDHA and DBT genes in one family. Treatment has been based on early implementation of emergency treatment, diet, close monitoring, and even dialysis in the setting of acute metabolic decompensation. A plasma leucine ≥400 μmol/L (outside therapeutic range) was more frequently observed in infancy or during adolescence, possibly due to infections, hormonal changes, or noncompliance. Children require careful management during metabolic decompensations in early childhood, and this represented a key risk period in our cohort. A high level of metabolic control can be achieved through diet with early implementation of a "sick day" regime and, in some cases, dialysis as a rescue therapy. The Irish cohort, despite largely classical phenotypes, achieved good outcomes in the NBS era, underlining the importance of early diagnosis and skilled multidisciplinary team management.

Validation of plasma amino acid profile using UHPLC-mass spectrometer (QDa) as a screening method in a metabolic disorders reference centre: Performance and accreditation concerns

INTRODUCTION

Amino acid (AA) analysis in plasma is essential for diagnosis and monitoring of inborn errors of metabolism (IEM). The efficacy of patient management is governed by the rapidity of AA profile availability, along with the robustness of the method. French quality guidelines and progress made in analytical techniques have led biologists to develop AA profile exploration via mass spectrometry (MS).

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to validate an analytical method with a single quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS) and to suggest reference values in regard to French quality and IEM society recommendations.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Plasma samples from patients were deproteinised and derivatised with AccqTag™ reagent. Analysis was performed by reverse-phase chromatography coupled to QDA detector. We evaluated accuracy, intra-days and inter-days precision and limit of quantification by the β-expectation tolerance interval method for 27 AA. Method comparison was performed with the standard method (ion exchange chromatography, IEC) on Jeol Aminotac® and to tandem MS. Reference values were established on AA concentrations of the cohort of patients who had no IEM.

RESULTS

Our method allowed the separations of almost all amino acids with a total run time of 12 min. Separation of isoleucine and alloisoleucine was incomplete (R = 0.55) but without impact on biological interpretation. Precision, accuracy and quantification were satisfactory (intra-days coefficient of variation (CV) was <5%, inter-days precision CV <10% and accuracy <15%). The limits of quantification were validated between 1 and 900 µmol/L. Results were comparable between the new method and IEC.

CONCLUSION

Ultimately, we validated a rapid method on plasma for quantifying 27 amino acids that can be used in routine practice, according to French quality laboratories and SFEIM (French Society of Inborn Error of Metabolism) recommendations. Furthermore, estimated reference values were similar to those found in published studies focusing on other methods. Despite a lower specificity compared to tandem MS, the simplicity and rapidity of our method are the main advantage of this technique and place it as a major tool in IEM diagnosis and management.

Nutrient management in the intrapartum period in maternal maple syrup urine disease

Women with congenital amino acid disorders, including maple syrup urine disease (MSUD), are at risk of metabolic crisis at delivery. There are still only a few case reports of maternal MSUD globally, and we are the first to report the successful perinatal management of a woman with classical MSUD in Japan. A healthy baby was delivered by scheduled cesarean section despite the presence of several uterine fibroids. With precise diet therapy and accurate preparation, she completed the postpartum period without metabolic decompensation. Although her clinical outcome was favorable, she experienced hypoproteinemia at delivery because the available branched-chain amino acid-free medical food did not contain sufficient protein to meet the recommended nutrient intake. Therefore, this case also indicates a potential issue regarding a shortage of variations in specific amino acid-free medical food in Japan, which should be addressed to achieve a better nutrient status of adults with MSUD and other amino acid disorders.

Enteral tube feeding in patients receiving dietary treatment for metabolic diseases: A retrospective analysis in a large French cohort

Context

A strictly controlled diet (often involving enteral tube feeding (ETF)) is part of the treatment of many inherited metabolic diseases (IMDs).

Objective

To describe the use of ETF in a large cohort of patients with IMDs.

Design

A retrospective analysis of ETF in patients with urea cycle disorders (UCDs), organic aciduria (OA), maple syrup disease (MSUD), glycogen storage diseases (GSDs) or fatty acid oxidation disorders (FAODs) diagnosed before the age of 12 months.

Setting

The reference center for IMDs at Necker Hospital (Paris, France).

Results

190 patients born between January 1991 and August 2017 were being treated for OA (n = 60), UCDs (n = 55), MSUD (n = 32), GSDs (n = 26) or FAODs (n = 17). Ninety-eight of these patients (52%) received ETF (OA subgroup: n = 40 (67%); UCDs: n = 12 (22%); MSUD: n = 9 (28%); GSDs: n = 23 (88%); FAODs: n = 14 (82%)). Indications for ETF were feeding difficulties in 64 (65%) patients, cessation of fasting in 39 (40%), and recurrent metabolic decompensation in 14 (14%). Complications of ETF were recorded in 48% of cases, more frequently with nasogastric tube (NGT) than with gastrostomy. Among patients in whom ETF was withdrawn, the mean duration of ETF was 5.9 (SD: 4.8) years (range: 0.6–19.8 years). The duration of ETF was found to vary from one disease subgroup to another (p = 0.051). While the longest median duration was found in the GSD subgroup (6.8 years), the shortest one was found in the UCD subgroup (0.9 years).

Conclusion

ETF is an integral part of the dietary management of IMDs. The long duration of ETF and the specific risks of NGT highlights the potential value of gastrostomy.

In this study at a French tertiary hospital, we documented the indications, modalities, duration and complications of enteral tube feeding in a cohort of patients with inherited metabolic diseases.

The Cost-Effectiveness of Expanding the UK Newborn Bloodspot Screening Programme to Include Five Additional Inborn Errors of Metabolism

Glutaric aciduria type 1, homocystinuria, isovaleric acidaemia, long-chain hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiency and maple syrup urine disease are all inborn errors of metabolism that can be detected through newborn bloodspot screening. This evaluation was undertaken in 2013 to provide evidence to the UK National Screening Committee for the cost-effectiveness of including these five conditions in the UK Newborn Bloodspot Screening Programme. A decision-tree model with lifetable estimates of outcomes was built with the model structure and parameterisation informed by a systematic review and expert clinical judgment. A National Health Service/Personal Social Services perspective was used, and lifetime costs and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were discounted at 1.5%. Uncertainty in the results was explored using expected value of perfect information analysis methods together with a sensitivity analysis using the screened incidence rate in the UK from 2014 to 2018. The model estimates that screening for all the conditions is more effective and cost saving when compared to not screening for each of the conditions, and the results were robust to the updated incidence rates. The key uncertainties included the sensitivity and specificity of the screening test and the estimated costs and QALYs.

Long-term Outcomes of Individuals With Metabolic Diseases Identified Through Newborn Screening

BACKGROUND

Although extended newborn screening (NBS) programs have been introduced more than 20 years ago, their impact on the long-term clinical outcome of individuals with inherited metabolic diseases (IMDs) is still rarely investigated.

METHODS

We studied the clinical outcomes of individuals with IMDs identified by NBS between 1999 and 2016 in a prospective multicenter observational study.

RESULTS

In total, 306 screened individuals with IMDs (115 with phenylketonuria and 191 with other IMDs with a lifelong risk for metabolic decompensation) were followed for a median time of 6.2 years. Although the risk for metabolic decompensation was disease-specific and NBS could not prevent decompensations in every individual at risk (n = 49), the majority did not develop permanent disease-specific signs (75.9%), showed normal development (95.6%) and normal cognitive outcome (87.7%; mean IQ: 100.4), and mostly attended regular kindergarten (95.2%) and primary school (95.2%). This demonstrates that not only individuals with phenylketonuria, serving as a benchmark, but also those with lifelong risk for metabolic decompensation had a favorable long-term outcome. High NBS process quality is the prerequisite of this favorable outcome. This is supported by 28 individuals presenting with first symptoms at a median age of 3.5 days before NBS results were available, by the absence of neonatal decompensations after the report of NBS results, and by the challenge of keeping relevant process parameters at a constantly high level.

CONCLUSIONS

NBS for IMDs, although not completely preventing clinical presentations in all individuals, can be considered a highly successful program of secondary prevention.

Evaluation of 11 years of newborn screening for maple syrup urine disease in the Netherlands and a systematic review of the literature: Strategies for optimization

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) leads to severe neurological deterioration unless diagnosed early and treated immediately. We have evaluated the effectiveness of 11 years of MSUD newborn screening (NBS) in the Netherlands (screening >72 hours, referral if both total leucine (Xle) and valine ≥400 μmol/L blood) and have explored possibilities for improvement by combining our data with a systematic literature review and data from Collaborative Laboratory Integrated Reports (CLIR). Dutch MSUD NBS characteristics and accuracy were determined. The hypothetical referral numbers in the Dutch population of additional screening markers suggested by CLIR were calculated. In a systematic review, articles reporting NBS leucine concentrations of confirmed patients were included. Our data showed that NBS of 1 963 465 newborns identified 4 MSUD patients and led to 118 false-positive referrals (PPV 3.28%; incidence 1:491 000 newborns). In literature, leucine is the preferred NBS parameter. Total leucine (Xle) concentrations (mass-spectrometry) of 53 detected and 8 false-negative patients (sampling age within 25 hours in 3 patients) reported in literature ranged from 288 to 3376 (median 900) and 42 to 325 (median 209) μmol/L blood respectively. CLIR showed increasing Xle concentrations with sampling age and early NBS sampling and milder variant MSUD phenotypes with (nearly) normal biochemical profiles are causes of false-negative NBS results. We evaluated the effect of additional screening markers and established the Xle/phenylalanine ratio as a promising additional marker ratio for increasing the PPV, while maintaining high sensitivity in the Dutch MSUD NBS.

Automated therapy preparation of isoleucine formulations using 3D printing for the treatment of MSUD: First single-centre, prospective, crossover study in patients

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is a rare metabolic disorder with a worldwide prevalence of 1 in every 185,000 live births. However, certain populations display a significant overexpression of the disorder where incidence is reported to be 1 in every 52,541 new-borns. The first-line therapy for MSUD involves a strict dietary leucine restriction and oral supplementation of isoleucine and valine. The dose administered to patients requires strict tailoring according to age, weight and blood levels. In current clinical practice, however, practitioners still have to prepare extemporaneous formulations due to the lack of suitable oral treatments for MSUD. Herein, we evaluate the first time use of 3D printing in a hospital setting for the preparation of personalised therapies with the aim of improving safety and acceptability to isoleucine supplementation in paediatric patients suffering from MSUD. This investigation was a single-centre, prospective crossover experimental study. Four paediatric patients with MSUD (aged 3-16 years) were treated at the Clinic University Hospital in Santiago de Compostela, Spain which is a MSUD reference hospital in Europe. The primary objective was to evaluate isoleucine blood levels after six months of treatment with two types of formulations; conventional capsules prepared by manual compounding and personalised chewable formulations prepared by automated 3D printing. A secondary investigation was to evaluate patient acceptability of 3D printed formulations prepared with different flavours and colours. Isoleucine blood levels in patients were well controlled using both types of formulations, however, the 3D printed therapy showed mean levels closer to the target value and with less variability (200-400 µM). The 3D printed formulations were well accepted by patients regarding flavour and colour. The study demonstrates for the first time that 3D printing offers a feasible, rapid and automated approach to prepare oral tailored-dose therapies in a hospital setting. 3D printing has shown to be an effective manufacturing technology in producing chewable isoleucine printlets as a treatment of MSUD with good acceptability.

Including Classical Galactosaemia in the Expanded Newborn Screening Panel Using Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Galactose-1-Phosphate

Galactosaemia has been included in various newborn screening programs since 1963. Several methods are used for screening; however, the predominant methods used today are based on the determination of either galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT) activity or the concentration of total galactose. These methods cannot be multiplexed and therefore require one full punch per sample. Since the introduction of mass spectrometry in newborn screening, many diseases have been included in newborn screening programs. Here, we present a method for including classical galactosaemia in an expanded newborn screening panel based on the specific determination of galactose-1-phosphate by tandem mass spectrometry. The existing workflow only needs minor adjustments, and it can be run on the tandem mass spectrometers in routine use. Furthermore, compared to the currently used methods, this novel method has a superior screening performance, producing significantly fewer false positive results. We present data from 5500 routine newborn screening samples from the Danish Neonatal Screening Biobank. The cohort was enriched by including 14 confirmed galactosaemia positive samples and 10 samples positive for other metabolic disorders diagnosed through the Danish newborn screening program. All galactosaemia positive samples were identified by the method with no false positives. Furthermore, the screening performance for other metabolic disorders was unaffected.

Two novel mutations in the BCKDHB gene that cause maple syrup urine disease

BACKGROUND

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is a rare metabolic disorder of autosomal recessive inheritance caused by decreased activity of branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex (BCKD). Mutations in the three genes (BCKDHA, BCKDHB and DBT) are associated with MSUD. Here, we describe the presenting symptoms, clinical course and gene mutation analysis of a Chinese boy with MSUD.

METHODS

Plasma amino acid analysis was performed by tandem mass spectrometry and the levels of organic acids in urine were measured with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The BCKDHB gene was sequenced by Sanger method. Furthermore, the significance of the novel mutations was predicted by Polyphen and Mutationtaster. After diagnosis, the patient was fed with protein-restricted diet to reduce intake of BCAA and was treated with _l-carnitine. Metabolic parameters, clinical presentation and mental development were followed up.

RESULTS

The patient was diagnosed as MSUD. Two novel BCKDHB mutations (c.523 T > C and c.478-25_552del100) were identified. In silico analysis predicted that the two mutations were "disease causing". The boy tolerated the treatment well and had symptomatic improvement. He presented with mild hypotonia and had nearly normal DQ scores at the age of 10 months. The two novel mutations resulted in the clinical manifestations of MSUD. Our results may reflect the heterogeneity of the pathogenic variants found in patients with MSUD.

Incidence of maple syrup urine disease, propionic acidemia, and methylmalonic aciduria from newborn screening data

Incidence for the branched-chain intoxication-type disorders, maple syrup urine disease, propionic acidemia and methlymalonic aciduria is dependent on the population screened. Here newborn screening results from three world regions, state screening laboratories in the United States, a region in Germany and Kuwait provides new incidence numbers. Maple syrup urine disease incidence in the United States was calculated to be 1: 220219, in South-West Germany 1: 119573 (Germany nationwide 1:177978), and in Kuwait 1: 59426. Incidence of propionic acidemia alone is calculated to be 1: 242741 in the United States, 1: 284450 in South-West Germany (Germany nationwide 1:202617) and 1:59426 in Kuwait. Incidence of isolated methylmalonic aciduria alone is 1:69354 in the United States, 1:568901 in South-West Germany (Germany nationwide 1:159199) and 1: 19809 in Kuwait. In the United States several newborn screening laboratories combine their results for propionic acidemia and methylmalonic aciduria, and also include combined remethylation disorders in the respective category, resulting in an incidence of 1:50709. Combined evaluation of methylmalonic aciduria, propionic aciduria and combined remethylation disorders results in a similar incidence for Germany of 1:67539. This evaluation of newborn screening incidences reflects some population differences for three intoxication-type metabolic disorders. However, different sample sizes of the populations screened over different time periods, and differences in case definitions for methylmalonic acidurias have to be considered when interpreting these data.

Inborn Errors of Metabolism with Acidosis: Organic Acidemias and Defects of Pyruvate and Ketone Body Metabolism

When a child presents with high-anion gap metabolic acidosis, the pediatrician can proceed with confidence by recalling some basic principles. Defects of organic acid, pyruvate, and ketone body metabolism that present with acute acidosis are reviewed. Flowcharts for identifying the underlying cause and initiating life-saving therapy are provided. By evaluating electrolytes, blood sugar, lactate, ammonia, and urine ketones, the provider can determine the likelihood of an inborn error of metabolism. Freezing serum, plasma, and urine samples during the acute presentation for definitive diagnostic testing at the provider's convenience aids in the differential diagnosis.

Long-term metabolic follow-up and clinical outcome of 35 patients with maple syrup urine disease

BACKGROUND

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is a rare disease that requires a protein-restricted diet for successful management. Little is known, however, about the psychosocial outcome of MSUD patients. This study investigates the relationship between metabolic and clinical parameters and psychosocial outcomes in a cohort of patients with neonatal-onset MSUD.

METHODS

Data on academic achievement, psychological care, family involvement, and biochemical parameters were collected from the medical records of neonatal MSUD patients treated at Necker Hospital (Paris) between 1964 and 2013.

RESULTS

Thirty-five MSUD patients with a mean age of 16.3 (2.1-49.0) years participated. Metabolic decompensations (plasma leucine >380 μmol/L) were more frequent during the first year of life and after 15 years, mainly due to infection and dietary noncompliance, respectively. Leucine levels increased significantly in adulthood: 61.5% of adults were independent and achieved adequate social and professional integration; 56% needed occasional or sustained psychological or psychiatric care (8/19, with externalizing, mood, emotional, and anxiety disorders being the most common). Patients needing psychiatric care were significantly older [mean and standard deviation (SD) 22.6 (7.7) years] than patients needing only psychological follow-up [mean (SD) 14.3 (8.9) years]. Patients with psychological follow-up experienced the highest lifetime number of decompensations; 45% of families had difficulty coping with the chronic disease. Parental involvement was negatively associated with the number of lifetime decompensations.

CONCLUSION

Adults had increased levels of plasma leucine, consistent with greater chronic toxicity. Psychological care was associated with age and number of decompensations. In addition, parental involvement appeared to be crucial in the management of MSUD patients.

Maple syrup urine disease: mechanisms and management

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is an inborn error of metabolism caused by defects in the branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex, which results in elevations of the branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) in plasma, α-ketoacids in urine, and production of the pathognomonic disease marker, alloisoleucine. The disorder varies in severity and the clinical spectrum is quite broad with five recognized clinical variants that have no known association with genotype. The classic presentation occurs in the neonatal period with developmental delay, failure to thrive, feeding difficulties, and maple syrup odor in the cerumen and urine, and can lead to irreversible neurological complications, including stereotypical movements, metabolic decompensation, and death if left untreated. Treatment consists of dietary restriction of BCAAs and close metabolic monitoring. Clinical outcomes are generally good in patients where treatment is initiated early. Newborn screening for MSUD is now commonplace in the United States and is included on the Recommended Uniform Screening Panel (RUSP). We review this disorder including its presentation, screening and clinical diagnosis, treatment, and other relevant aspects pertaining to the care of patients.

Two homozygous mutations in the exon 5 of BCKDHB gene that may cause the classic form of maple syrup urine disease

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is a rare autosomal recessive genetic disorder caused by defects in the catabolism of the branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs). Classic form of MSUD (CMSUD) is caused by mutations in BCKDHA, BCKDHB, DBT genes mostly. In this study, we analyzed the clinical and genetic characteristics of two patients with CMSUD. Two homozygous mutations, c.517G > T (p.Asp173Tyr) and c.503G > A (p.Arg168His), both in the exon 5 of BCKDHB were detected respectively. The novel mutation p.Asp173Tyr of patient A, inherited from his parents, is predicted to affect conformation of protein by computer analysis. The reported mutation p.Arg168His observed in patient B seemed to occur in a maternal uniparental disomy inheritance manner. Review of related literature revealed that most missense mutations in exon 5 of BCKDHB in homozygous genotype often result in CMSUD because of its incorrect conformation, and exon 5 of BCKDHB might be a susceptible region. Thus the novel homozygous mutation p.Asp173Tyr and the founder homozygous mutation p.Arg168His may be responsible for the clinical presentation of the two CMSUD patients, facilitating the future genetic counselling and prenatal diagnosis.

Neonatal Screening for Inherited Metabolic Diseases in 2016

The scope of newborn screening (NBS) programs is continuously expanding. NBS programs are secondary prevention interventions widely recognized internationally in the "field of Public Health." These interventions are aimed at early detection of asymptomatic children affected by certain diseases, with the objective to establish a definitive diagnosis and apply the proper treatment to prevent further complications and sequelae and ensure a better quality of life. The most significant event in the history of neonatal screening was the discovery of phenylketonuria in 1934. This disease has been the paradigm of inherited metabolic diseases. The next paradigm was the introduction of tandem mass spectrometry in the NBS programs that make possible the simultaneous measurement of several metabolites and consequently, the detection of several diseases in one blood spot and in an unique analysis. We aim to review the current situation of neonatal screening in 2016 worldwide and show scientific evidence of the benefits for some diseases. We will also discuss future challenges. It should be taken into account that any consideration to expand an NBS panel should involve a rigorous process of decision-making that balances benefits against the risks of harm.