A novel concentration dependent amino acid ion pair strategy to mediate drug permeation using indomethacin as a model insoluble drug

Exploration of the Safety and Solubilization, Dissolution, Analgesic Effects of Common Basic Excipients on the NSAID Drug Ketoprofen

Since its introduction to the market in the 1970s, ketoprofen has been widely used due to its high efficacy in moderate pain management. However, its poor solubility and ulcer side effects have diminished its popularity. This study prepared forms of ketoprofen modified with three basic excipients: tris, L-lysine, and L-arginine, and investigated their ability to improve water solubility and reduce ulcerogenic potential. The complexation/salt formation of ketoprofen and the basic excipients was prepared using physical mixing and coprecipitation methods. The prepared mixtures were studied for solubility, docking, dissolution, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), in vivo evaluation for efficacy (the writhing test), and safety (ulcerogenic liability). Phase solubility diagrams were constructed, and a linear solubility (AL type) curve was obtained with tris. Docking studies suggested a possible salt formation with L-arginine using Hirshfeld surface analysis. The order of enhancement of solubility and dissolution rates was as follows: L-arginine > L-lysine > tris. In vivo analgesic evaluation indicated a significant enhancement of the onset of action of analgesic activities for the three basic excipients. However, safety and gastric protection indicated that both ketoprofen arginine and ketoprofen lysine salts were more favorable than ketoprofen tris.

A Novel Curcumin Arginine Salt: A Solution for Poor Solubility and Potential Anticancer Activities

Curcumin is a natural polyphenolic compound with well-known anticancer properties. Poor solubility and permeability hamper its use as an anticancer pharmaceutical product. In this study, L-arginine, a basic amino acid and a small hydrophilic molecule, was utilized to form a salt with the weak acid curcumin to enhance its solubility and potentiate the anticancer activities of curcumin. Two methods were adopted for the preparation of curcumin: L-arginine salt, namely, physical mixing and coprecipitation. The ion pair or salt was characterized for docking, solubility, DSC, FTIR, XRD, in vitro dissolution, and anticancer activities using MCF7 cell lines. The molecular docking suggested a salt/ion-pair complex between curcumin and L-arginine. Curcumin solubility was increased 335- and 440-fold by curcumin in L-arginine, physical, and co-precipitated mixtures, respectively. Thermal and spectral analyses supported the molecular docking and formation of a salt/ion pair between curcumin and L-arginine. The cytotoxicity of curcumin L-arginine salt significantly improved (p < 0.05) by 1.4-fold, as evidenced by the calculated IC50%, which was comparable to Taxol (the standard anticancer drug but with common side effects).

Investigating how amine structure influences drug-amine ion-pair formation and uptake via the polyamine transporter in A549 lung cells

Transiently associating amines with therapeutic agents through the formation of ion-pairs has been established both in vitro and in vivo as an effective means to systemically direct drug delivery to the lung via the polyamine transport system (PTS). However, there remains a need to better understand the structural traits required for effective PTS uptake of drug ion-pairs. This study aimed to use a structurally related series of amine counterions to investigate how they influenced the stability of theophylline ion-pairs and their active uptake in A549 cells. Using ethylamine (mono-amine), ethylenediamine (di-amine), spermidine (tri-amine) and spermine (tetra-amine) as counterions the ion-pair affinity was shown to increase as the number of protonated amine groups in the counterion structure increased. The mono and diamines generated a single hydrogen bond and the weakest ion-pair affinities (pK_FTIR: 1.32 ± 0.04 and 1.43 ± 0.02) whereas the polyamines produced two hydrogen bonds and thus the strongest ion-pair affinities (pK_FTIR: 1.93 ± 0.05 and 1.96 ± 0.04). In A549 cells depleted of endogenous polyamines using α-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), the spermine-theophylline uptake was significantly increased (p < 0.05) compared to non-amine depleted cells and this evidenced the active PTS sequestering of the ion-pair. The mono-amine and di-amine failed to enhance theophylline uptake in these A549 cells, but the tri-amine and tetra-amine both almost doubled the theophylline uptake into the cells when compared to the uptake of free drug. As the data indicated that polyamines with at least 3 amines were required to form ion-pairs that could enhance A549 cell uptake, it suggested that at least two amines were required to physically stabilise the ion-pair and one to interact with the PTS.

Tomé L, Olmedo‐Martínez JL, Udabe E, Jenkins EPW, Mecerreyes D, Malliaras GG, McLeod RR, Proctor CM. Reducing Passive Drug Diffusion from Electrophoretic Drug Delivery Devices through Co-Ion Engineering

Implantable electrophoretic drug delivery devices have shown promise for applications ranging from treating pathologies such as epilepsy and cancer to regulating plant physiology. Upon applying a voltage, the devices electrophoretically transport charged drug molecules across an ion-conducting membrane out to the local implanted area. This solvent-flow-free "dry" delivery enables controlled drug release with minimal pressure increase at the outlet. However, a major challenge these devices face is limiting drug leakage in their idle state. Here, a method of reducing passive drug leakage through the choice of the drug co-ion is presented. By switching acetylcholine's associated co-ion from chloride to carboxylate co-ions as well as sulfopropyl acrylate-based polyanions, steady-state drug leakage rate is reduced up to sevenfold with minimal effect on the active drug delivery rate. Numerical simulations further illustrate the potential of this method and offer guidance for new material systems to suppress passive drug leakage in electrophoretic drug delivery devices.

Acidic amino acids as counterions of ciprofloxacin: Effect on growth and pigment production in Staphylococcus aureus NCTC 8325 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is emerging as a global threat to public health. One of the strategies employed to combat AMR is the use of adjuvants which act to enhance or reinstate antimicrobial activity by inhibiting resistance mechanisms. However, these adjuvants are themselves not immune to selecting resistant phenotypes. Thus, there is a need to utilise mechanisms which are either less likely to or unable to trigger resistance. One commonly employed mechanism of resistance by microorganisms is to prevent antimicrobial uptake or efflux the antibiotic which manages to permeate its membrane. Here we propose amino acids as antimicrobial adjuvants that may be utilizing alternate mechanisms to fight AMR. We used a modified ethidium bromide (EtBr) efflux assay to determine its efflux in the presence of ciprofloxacin within Staphylococcus aureus (NCTC 8325) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PAO1). In this study, aspartic acid and glutamic acid were found to inhibit growth of both bacterial species. Moreover, a reduced production of toxic pigments, pyocyanin and pyoverdine by P. aeruginosa was also observed. As evident from similar findings with tetracycline, these adjuvants, may be a way forward towards tackling antimicrobial resistance.

Comparative studies of the effects of novel excipients amino acids with cyclodextrins on enhancement of dissolution and oral bioavailability of the non-ionizable drug carbamazepine

Despite significant innovations in pharmaceutical industries, low water solubility is still a common biopharmaceutics-related problem that encounters 40% of marketed pharmaceutical products and results in erratic oral absorption and low bioavailability. Poorly soluble non-ionizable drugs pose additional challenges for enhancing solubility of this class of drugs. The effects of small molecular weight carriers such as amino acids (glycine, L-threonine; L-lysine and aspartic acid) on solubilization and enhancing bioavailability of Carbamazepine (Car) were investigated and compared to the more known excipients cyclodextrins (β-CD, HPβ-CD and γ-CD). Drug-carrier PM and Coppt in 1:1 molar ratio were prepared; characterized for docking, solubility, DSC, FTIR, XRD and dissolution rate; and evaluated for their oral bioavailability. Molecular docking calculations, spectral and thermal analysis confirmed Car-Amino acids ion pair complexes and Car-CDs inclusion complexes. While dissolution rate enhancement factors recorded for both CDs and amino acids were up to 12-times; additional permeation enhancing mechanism could explain superior relative bioavailability by approximately 170% for Car: Amino acid complexes and 166% for Car: CDs compared with Car alone. This study warrants the use of amino acids as a promising small molecular weight and versatile water-soluble carrier for enhancing solubility/permeability and bioavailability for this non-ionizable drug. This might endow the formulator flexibility in the design and dosage form with less bulky economic and more patient friendly solid platform for those epileptic patients and/or elderly patients that can experience difficulty in swallowing and need rapid onset of action.

Evaluation of anti-biofilm activity of acidic amino acids and synergy with ciprofloxacin on Staphylococcus aureus biofilms

Acidic amino acids, aspartic acid (Asp) and glutamic acid (Glu) can enhance the solubility of many poorly soluble drugs including ciprofloxacin (Cip). One of the mechanisms of resistance within a biofilm is retardation of drug diffusion due to poor penetration across the matrix. To overcome this challenge, this work set to investigate novel counter ion approach with acidic amino acids, which we hypothesised will disrupt the biofilm matrix as well as simultaneously improve drug effectiveness. The anti-biofilm activity of D-Asp and D-Glu was studied on Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Synergistic effect of combining D-amino acids with Cip was also investigated as a strategy to overcome anti-microbial resistance in these biofilms. Interestingly at equimolar combinations, D-Asp and D-Glu were able to significantly disperse (at 20 mM and 40 mM) established biofilms and inhibit (at 10 mM, 20 mM and 40 mM) new biofilm formation in the absence of an antibiotic. Moreover, our study confirmed L-amino acids also exhibit anti-biofilm activity. The synergistic effect of acidic amino acids with Cip was observed at lower concentration ranges (<40 mM amino acids and <90.54 µM, respectively), which resulted in 96.89% (inhibition) and 97.60% (dispersal) reduction in CFU with exposure to 40 mM amino acids. Confocal imaging indicated that the amino acids disrupt the honeycomb-like extracellular DNA (eDNA) meshwork whilst also preventing its formation.

Using Polar Ion-Pairs to Control Drug Delivery to the Airways of the Lungs

The rapid absorptive clearance of drugs delivered to the airways of the lungs means that many inhaled medicines have a short duration of action. The aim of this study was to investigate whether forming polar ion-pairs can modify drug absorption to slow down clearance from the airways. Salbutamol was used as a model drug and was formulated as ion-pairs in an aqueous solution with three negatively charged hydrophilic counterions: sulfate (molecular weight (MW) 142), gluconate (MW 218), and phytate (MW 736) (association constants of 1.57, 2.27, and 4.15, respectively) and one negatively charged hydrophobic counterion, octanoate (MW 166) (association constant, 2.56). All of the counterions were well tolerated by Calu-3 human bronchial epithelial cells when screened for toxicity in vitro using conditions that in silico simulations suggested maintain >80% drug-counterion association. The transport of salbutamol ion-pairs with higher polar surface area (PSA), i.e., the sulfate (PSA 52%), gluconate (PSA 50%), and phytate (PSA 79%) ion-pairs, was significantly lower compared to that of the drug alone (PSA 30%, p < 0.05). In contrast, the octanoate ion-pair (PSA 23%) did not significantly alter the salbutamol transport. The transport data for the gluconate ion-pair suggested that the pulmonary absorption half-life of the ion-paired drug would be double that of salbutamol base, and this illustrates the promise of increasing drug polarity using noncovalent complexation as an approach to control drug delivery to the airways of the lungs.

Colonic delivery of indometacin loaded PGA-co-PDL microparticles coated with Eudragit L100-55 from fast disintegrating tablets

The aim of this work was to investigate the efficient targeting and delivery of indometacin (IND), as a model anti-inflammatory drug to the colon for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. We prepared fast disintegrating tablets (FDT) containing IND encapsulated within poly(glycerol-adipate-co-ɷ-pentadecalactone), PGA-co-PDL, microparticles and coated with Eudragit L100-55 at different ratios (1:1.5, 1:1, 1:0.5). Microparticles encapsulated with IND were prepared using an o/w single emulsion solvent evaporation technique and coated with Eudragit L-100-55 via spray drying. The produced coated microparticles (PGA-co-PDL-IND/Eudragit) were formulated into optimised FTD using a single station press. The loading, in vitro release, permeability and transport of IND from PGA-co-PDL-IND/Eudragit microparticles was studied in Caco-2 cell lines. IND was efficiently encapsulated (570.15±4.2μg/mg) within the PGA-co-PDL microparticles. In vitro release of PGA-co-PDL-IND/Eudragit microparticles (1:1.5) showed significantly (p<0.05, ANOVA/Tukey) lower release of IND 13.70±1.6 and 56.46±3.8% compared with 1:1 (89.61±2.5, 80.13±2.6%) and 1:0.5 (39.46±0.9 & 43.38±3.12) after 3 and 43h at pH 5.5 and 6.8, respectively. The permeability and transport studies indicated IND released from PGA-co-PDL-IND/Eudragit microparticles had a lower permeability coefficient of 13.95±0.68×10^-6cm/s compared to free IND 23.06±3.56×10^-6cm/s. These results indicate the possibility of targeting anti-inflammatory drugs to the colon using FDTs containing microparticles coated with Eudragit.

Pre-formulation and systematic evaluation of amino acid assisted permeability of insulin across in vitro buccal cell layers

The aim of this work was to investigate alternative safe and effective permeation enhancers for buccal peptide delivery. Basic amino acids improved insulin solubility in water while 200 and 400 μg/mL lysine significantly increased insulin solubility in HBSS. Permeability data showed a significant improvement in insulin permeation especially for 10 μg/mL of lysine (p < 0.05) and 10 μg/mL histidine (p < 0.001), 100 μg/mL of glutamic acid (p < 0.05) and 200 μg/mL of glutamic acid and aspartic acid (p < 0.001) without affecting cell integrity; in contrast to sodium deoxycholate which enhanced insulin permeability but was toxic to the cells. It was hypothesized that both amino acids and insulin were ionised at buccal cavity pH and able to form stable ion pairs which penetrated the cells as one entity; while possibly triggering amino acid nutrient transporters on cell surfaces. Evidence of these transport mechanisms was seen with reduction of insulin transport at suboptimal temperatures as well as with basal-to-apical vectoral transport, and confocal imaging of transcellular insulin transport. These results obtained for insulin are the first indication of a possible amino acid mediated transport of insulin via formation of insulin-amino acid neutral complexes by the ion pairing mechanism.

A methodological evaluation and predictive in silico investigation into the multi-functionality of arginine in directly compressed tablets

The acceleration of solid dosage form product development can be facilitated by the inclusion of excipients that exhibit poly-/multi-functionality with reduction of the time invested in multiple excipient optimisations. Because active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and tablet excipients present diverse densification behaviours upon compaction, the involvement of these different powders during compaction makes the compaction process very complicated. The aim of this study was to assess the macrometric characteristics and distribution of surface charges of two powders: indomethacin (IND) and arginine (ARG); and evaluate their impact on the densification properties of the two powders. Response surface modelling (RSM) was employed to predict the effect of two independent variables; Compression pressure (F) and ARG percentage (R) in binary mixtures on the properties of resultant tablets. The study looked at three responses namely; porosity (P), tensile strength (S) and disintegration time (T). Micrometric studies showed that IND had a higher charge density (net charge to mass ratio) when compared to ARG; nonetheless, ARG demonstrated good compaction properties with high plasticity (Y=28.01MPa). Therefore, ARG as filler to IND tablets was associated with better mechanical properties of the tablets (tablet tensile strength (σ) increased from 0.2±0.05N/mm(2) to 2.85±0.36N/mm(2) upon adding ARG at molar ratio of 8:1 to IND). Moreover, tablets' disintegration time was shortened to reach few seconds in some of the formulations. RSM revealed tablet porosity to be affected by both compression pressure and ARG ratio for IND/ARG physical mixtures (PMs). Conversely, the tensile strength (σ) and disintegration time (T) for the PMs were influenced by the compression pressure, ARG ratio and their interactive term (FR); and a strong correlation was observed between the experimental results and the predicted data for tablet porosity. This work provides clear evidence of the multi-functionality of ARG as filler, binder and disintegrant for directly compressed tablets.

Indomethacin co-crystals and their parent mixtures: does the intestinal barrier recognize them differently?

Co-crystals are crystalline complexes of two or more molecules bound together in crystal lattices through noncovalent interactions. The solubility and dissolution properties of co-crystals can allow to increase the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). It is currently believed that the co-crystallization strategy should not induce changes on the pharmacological profile of the APIs, even if it is not yet clear whether a co-crystal would be defined as a physical mixture or as a new chemical entity. In order to clarify these aspects, we chose indomethacin as guest poorly aqueous soluble molecule and compared its properties with those of its co-crystals obtained with 2-hydroxy-4-methylpyridine (co-crystal 1), 2-methoxy-5-nitroaniline (co-crystal 2), and saccharine (co-crystal 3). In particular, we performed a systematic comparison among indomethacin, its co-crystals, and their parent physical mixtures by evaluating via HPLC analysis the API dissolution profile, its ability to permeate across intestinal cell monolayers (NCM460), and its oral bioavailability in rat. The indomethacin dissolution profile was not altered by the presence of co-crystallizing agents as physical mixtures, whereas significant changes were observed by the dissolution of the co-crystals. Furthermore, there was a qualitative concordance between the API dissolution patterns and the relative oral bioavailabilities in rats. Co-crystal 1 induced a drastic decrease of the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) value of NCM460 cell monolayers, whereas its parent mixture did not evidence any effect. The saccharin-indomethacin mixture induced a drastic decrease of the TEER value of monolayers, whereas its parent co-crystal 3 did not induce any effects on their integrity, being anyway able to increase the permeation of indomethacin. Taken together, these results demonstrate for the first time different effects induced by co-crystals and their parent physical mixtures on a biologic system, findings that could raise serious concerns about the use of co-crystal strategy to improve API bioavailability without performing appropriate investigations.