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Shahbaz S, Esmaeili M, Fathian Nasab MH, Imani Z, Bafkary R, Amini M, Atyabi F, Dinarvand R. PEGylated mesoporous silica core-shell redox-responsive nanoparticles for delivering paclitaxel to breast cancer cells. Int J Pharm 2024; 655:124024. [PMID: 38537920 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.124024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2024] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Controlling the drug release and restricting its presence in healthy organs is extremely valuable. In this study, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) as the core, loaded with paclitaxel (PTX), were coated with a non-porous silica shell functionalized with disulfide bonds. The nanoparticles were further coated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) via disulfide linkages. We analyzed the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, including hydrodynamic size via Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), zeta potential, X-ray Diffraction (XRD) patterns, Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra, and imaging through Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The drug release profile in two distinct glutathione (GSH) concentrations of 2 µM and 10 µM was measured. The cellular uptake of nanoparticles by MCF-7 cell line was determined using Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) images and flow cytometry. Furthermore, the cell viability and the capability of nanoparticles to induce apoptosis in MCF-7 cell line were studied using the MTT assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Our investigations revealed that the release of PTX from the drug delivery system was redox-responsive. Also, results indicated an elevated level of cellular uptake and efficient induction of apoptosis, underscoring the promising potential of this redox-responsive drug delivery system for breast cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Shahbaz
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahta Esmaeili
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Zhila Imani
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Reza Bafkary
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohsen Amini
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Atyabi
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Rassoul Dinarvand
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Leicester School of Pharmacy, Leicester Institute for Pharmaceutical Innovation, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK.
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Ta W, Li X, Song J, Hua R, Zheng Y, Lu W. Customizable Dual-Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Tracing and Quantifying of Cell Transport. Int J Nanomedicine 2023; 18:1823-1834. [PMID: 37041817 PMCID: PMC10083028 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s394953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems (nano-DDS) have been developed to be a promising strategy to improve the efficacy, safety, physicochemical and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics properties of drugs. It is very necessary to elucidate the delivery process in vivo or in cells for the rational design and accurate preparation of nano-DDS. The aim of this study was to construct a nano-DDS to visualize and quantify the intracellular behavior of the loaded cargo and carrier in such a system. Methods A carboxyl-terminal end of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) polymer was fluorescently labeled with rhodamine B by conjugation of ethylenediamine. Dual-fluorescent nanoparticles (DFPs) were prepared from this fluorescently labeled polymer to encapsulate a fluorescent cargo, coumarin 6. The carrier and cargo of DFPs were monitored by confocal fluorescence microscopy during cellular uptake. Furthermore, the transcellular transportation of DFPs was evaluated quantitatively by measuring the fluorescence intensity. Results The obtained fluorescent polymer showed stable and quantifiable characteristics. DFPs could be customized in terms of coumarin 6 content (97.7±1.0%), size (367.3±1.7 nm) and dual-emission fluorescence (green cargo and red carrier). DFPs did not significantly affect cell viability, the integrity of cell monolayers and the microscopic morphology at concentrations below 0.7 mg/mL within 3 h of co-incubation with Caco-2 cells. Multichannel fluorescence monitoring revealed that the fluorescence intensity of the carrier and cargo increased with time, but not synchronously. By calculating the residual, intracellular, and transport amounts of DFPs, the material balance between the total amount of cellular transport and the dose administered was obtained. Conclusion Based on the advantages of dual fluorescent labeling, the differential behavior of cell trafficking can be visualized and quantitatively analyzed for the cargo and carrier of DFPs. These results provide insights into the cellular transport process of holistic nanoparticles and complement our understanding of the biological behaviors of nano-DDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Ta
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xingyue Li
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jihong Song
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ruochen Hua
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuting Zheng
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wen Lu
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Wen Lu, School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710061, People’s Republic of China, Email
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de Campos LJ, Seleem MA, Feng J, Pires de Oliveira KM, de Andrade Dos Santos JV, Hayer S, Clayton JB, Kathi S, Fisher DJ, Ouellette SP, Conda-Sheridan M. Design, Biological Evaluation, and Computer-Aided Analysis of Dihydrothiazepines as Selective Antichlamydial Agents. J Med Chem 2023; 66:2116-2142. [PMID: 36696579 PMCID: PMC10056257 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) causes the most prevalent sexually transmitted bacterial disease in the United States. The lack of drug selectivity is one of the main challenges of the current antichlamydial pharmacotherapy. The metabolic needs of CT are controlled, among others, by cylindrical proteases and their chaperones (e.g., ClpX). It has been shown that dihydrothiazepines can disrupt CT-ClpXP. Based on this precedent, we synthesized a dihydrothiazepine library and characterized its antichlamydial activity using a modified semi-high-throughput screening assay. Then, we demonstrated their ability to inhibit ClpX ATPase activity in vitro, supporting ClpX as a target. Further, our lead compound displayed a promising selectivity profile against CT, acceptable cytotoxicity, no mutagenic potential, and good in vitro stability. A two-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (2D QSAR) model was generated as a support tool in the identification of more potent antichlamydial molecules. This study suggests dihydrothiazepines are a promising starting point for the development of new and selective antichlamydial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Janaína de Campos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Mohamed A Seleem
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Jiachen Feng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Kelly Mari Pires de Oliveira
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Science, Federal University of Grande Dourados, Dourados, MS 79804-970, Brazil
| | | | - Shivdeep Hayer
- Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska 68182, United States
| | - Jonathan B Clayton
- Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska 68182, United States
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska─Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, United States
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
- Nebraska Food for Health Center, University of Nebraska─Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68508, United States
| | - Sharvath Kathi
- School of Biological Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois 62901, United States
| | - Derek J Fisher
- School of Biological Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois 62901, United States
| | - Scot P Ouellette
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - Martin Conda-Sheridan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
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Strutt R, Sheffield F, Barlow NE, Flemming AJ, Harling JD, Law RV, Brooks NJ, Barter LMC, Ces O. UV-DIB: label-free permeability determination using droplet interface bilayers. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:972-985. [PMID: 35107110 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc01155c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Simple diffusion of molecular entities through a phospholipid bilayer, is a phenomenon of great importance to the pharmaceutical and agricultural industries. Current model lipid systems to probe this typically only employ fluorescence as a readout, thus limiting the range of assessable chemical matter that can be studied. We report a new technology platform, the UV-DIB, which facilitates label free measurement of small molecule translocation rates. This is based upon the coupling of droplet interface bilayer technology with implemented fiber optics to facilitate analysis via ultraviolet spectroscopy, in custom designed PMMA wells. To improve on current DIB technology, the platform was designed to be reusable, with a high sampling rate and a limit of UV detection in the low μM regime. We demonstrate the use of our system to quantify passive diffusion in a reproducible and rapid manner where the system was validated by investigating multiple permeants of varying physicochemical properties across a range of lipid interfaces, each demonstrating differing kinetics. Our system permits the interrogation of structural dependence on the permeation rate of a given compound. We present this ability from two structural perspectives, that of the membrane, and the permeant. We observed a reduction in permeability between pure DOPC and DPhPC interfaces, concurring with literature and demonstrating our ability to study the effects of lipid composition on permeability. In relation to the effects of permeant structure, our device facilitated the rank ordering of various compounds from the xanthine class of compounds, where the structure of each permeant differed by a single group alteration. We found that DIBs were stable up to 5% DMSO, a molecule often used to aid solubilisation of pharmaceutical and agrochemical compounds. The ability of our device to rank-order compounds with such minor structural differences provides a level of precision that is rarely seen in current, industrially applied technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Strutt
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK.
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Felix Sheffield
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK.
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Nathan E Barlow
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK.
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Anthony J Flemming
- Syngenta, Jealott's Hill International Research Centre, Bracknell, Berkshire, RG42 6EY, UK
| | - John D Harling
- Medicinal Chemistry, GlaxoSmithKline, Stevenage, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Robert V Law
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK.
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Nicholas J Brooks
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK.
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Laura M C Barter
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK.
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Oscar Ces
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK.
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, Shepherd's Bush, London, W12 0BZ, UK
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Raajaraman BR, Sheela NR, Muthu S. Spectroscopic, quantum computational, molecular docking and biological parameters of 4-phenylbutyrophenone: a neuroleptic agent. CHEMICAL PAPERS 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11696-021-01617-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Periyasamy L, Muruganantham B, Deivasigamani M, Lakshmanan H, Muthusami S. Acetogenin Extracted from Annona muricata Prevented the Actions of EGF in PA-1 Ovarian Cancer Cells. Protein Pept Lett 2021; 28:304-314. [PMID: 32938339 DOI: 10.2174/0929866527666200916141730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In individuals with ovarian cancer, an increase in the circulating level of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) is readily apparent. Ovarian cancer cells exhibit signaling pathway of the epidermal growth factor (EGFR) and respond to the EGF. Annona muricata (AM) has been shown to decrease ovarian cell proliferation however, role of AM in regulating EGF actions is not yet to be reported. OBJECTIVE In this study, we proposed that the fractionated compound acetogenin can inhibit the activation of EGFR-regulated signaling cascades such as MAPK7 / PI3K-Akt / mTOR / STAT upon EGF stimulation. METHODS Ethanolic extract was prepared for the whole AM plant and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) was performed to characterize the secondary metabolites and each fraction was assessed using kedde reagent for the presence of acetogenin. The effects of acetogenins were then tested on the survival of PA-1 ovarian cancer cells under basal and EGF stimulated conditions. To delineate the role of acetogenin in EGFR signaling cascades, the in silico docking studies were conducted. RESULTS The fraction of acetogenin decreased the viability of EGF induced PA-1 ovarian cancer cells that indicating the EGF inhibitory effects of acetogenin. The docking studies specifically illustrated that when the acetogenin binding with tyrosine kinase (TK) and regulatory unit (RU) which subsequently resulted in a reduction in EGF induced the survival of PA-1 ovarian cancer cells. DISCUSSION The vital regulatory role of acetogenin reported in this study indicate significant anticancer activities of acetogenin from AM. The in silico study of the acetogenin function predicted that it binds specifically to Asp837 (phosphor-acceptor site) of EGFR, essential for phosphorylation of substrates in the TK domain and RU which promote downstream signaling. CONCLUSION Acetogenin isolated from AM effectively inhibited the survival of PA-1 ovarian cancer cells through impaired EGF signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loganayaki Periyasamy
- Department of Biochemistry, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 021, India
| | - Bharathi Muruganantham
- Karpagam Cancer Research Centre, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 021, India
| | - Malarvizhi Deivasigamani
- Department of Biochemistry, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 021, India
| | - Hariprasath Lakshmanan
- Department of Biochemistry, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 021, India
| | - Sridhar Muthusami
- Department of Biochemistry, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 021, India
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Bachler S, Ort M, Krämer SD, Dittrich PS. Permeation Studies across Symmetric and Asymmetric Membranes in Microdroplet Arrays. Anal Chem 2021; 93:5137-5144. [PMID: 33721989 PMCID: PMC8014892 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c04939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the permeation of molecules across lipid membranes on an open microfluidic platform. An array of droplet pairs was created by spotting aqueous droplets, dispersed in a lipid oil solution, onto a plate with cavities surrounded by a hydrophobic substrate. Droplets in two adjacent cavities come in contact and form an artificial lipid bilayer, called a droplet interface bilayer (DIB). The method allows for monitoring permeation of fluorescently tagged compounds from a donor droplet to an acceptor droplet. A mathematical model was applied to describe the kinetics and determine the permeation coefficient. We also demonstrate that permeation kinetics can be followed over a series of droplets, all connected via DIBs. Moreover, by changing the lipid oil composition after spotting donor droplets, we were able to create asymmetric membranes that we used to mimic the asymmetry of the cellular plasma membrane. Finally, we developed a protocol to separate and extract the droplets for label-free analysis of permeating compounds by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Our versatile platform has the potential to become a new tool for the screening of drug membrane permeability in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Bachler
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marion Ort
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefanie D Krämer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Petra S Dittrich
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
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Bachler S, Haidas D, Ort M, Duncombe TA, Dittrich PS. Microfluidic platform enables tailored translocation and reaction cascades in nanoliter droplet networks. Commun Biol 2020; 3:769. [PMID: 33318607 PMCID: PMC7736871 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-020-01489-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In the field of bottom-up synthetic biology, lipid membranes are the scaffold to create minimal cells and mimic reactions and processes at or across the membrane. In this context, we employ here a versatile microfluidic platform that enables precise positioning of nanoliter droplets with user-specified lipid compositions and in a defined pattern. Adjacent droplets make contact and form a droplet interface bilayer to simulate cellular membranes. Translocation of molecules across membranes are tailored by the addition of alpha-hemolysin to selected droplets. Moreover, we developed a protocol to analyze the translocation of non-fluorescent molecules between droplets with mass spectrometry. Our method is capable of automated formation of one- and two-dimensional droplet networks, which we demonstrated by connecting droplets containing different compound and enzyme solutions to perform translocation experiments and a multistep enzymatic cascade reaction across the droplet network. Our platform opens doors for creating complex artificial systems for bottom-up synthetic biology. Simon Bachler et al. present a new microfluidic platform to control the precise position and patterns of nanoliter droplets with various lipid materials. They show their platform enables monitoring of droplets and subsequent label-free mass spectrometry, which represents an important advance for the synthetic biology community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Bachler
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dominik Haidas
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marion Ort
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Todd A Duncombe
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Petra S Dittrich
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland.
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Faugeras V, Duclos O, Bazile D, Thiam AR. Membrane determinants for the passive translocation of analytes through droplet interface bilayers. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:5970-5980. [PMID: 32543614 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm00667j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how small molecules cross cell membranes is crucial to pharmaceutics. Several methods have been developed to evaluate such a process, but they need improvement since many false-positive candidates are often selected. Robust tools enabling rapid and reproducible screening can increase confidence on hits, and artificial membranes based on droplet interface bilayers (DIBs) offer this possibility. DIBs consist in the adhesion of two phospholipid-covered water-in-oil droplets which reproduce a bilayer. By having donor and acceptor droplets, the permeability of an analyte can be studied. However, the relevance of this system relies on the comprehension of how well the physical chemistry of the produced bilayer recapitulates the behavior of cell membranes. This information is missing, and we address it here. Taking small fluorophores as model analytes, we studied their permeation through DIBs made of a wide range of phospholipids. We found that both the phospholipid acyl chain and polar head affect permeability. Overall, these parameters impact the phospholipid shape and thereupon the membrane lateral pressure, which is a major factor modulating with permeability in our system. These results depend on the nature of the chosen oil. We thereupon identified relevant physical chemistry conditions that best mimic the compactness and subsequent permeability of biological membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Faugeras
- Laboratoire de Physique de l'École Normale Supérieure, ENS, Université PSL, CNRS, Paris, France.
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