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Cárdenas-Moreno Y, González-Bacerio J, García Arellano H, Del Monte-Martínez A. Oxidoreductase enzymes: Characteristics, applications, and challenges as a biocatalyst. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2023; 70:2108-2135. [PMID: 37753743 DOI: 10.1002/bab.2513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Oxidoreductases are enzymes with distinctive characteristics that favor their use in different areas, such as agriculture, environmental management, medicine, and analytical chemistry. Among these enzymes, oxidases, dehydrogenases, peroxidases, and oxygenases are very interesting. Because their substrate diversity, they can be used in different biocatalytic processes by homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis. Immobilization of these enzymes has favored their use in the solution of different biotechnological problems, with a notable increase in the study and optimization of this technology in the last years. In this review, the main structural and catalytical features of oxidoreductases, their substrate specificity, immobilization, and usage in biocatalytic processes, such as bioconversion, bioremediation, and biosensors obtainment, are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosberto Cárdenas-Moreno
- Laboratory for Enzyme Technology, Centre for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana, Cuba
| | - Jorge González-Bacerio
- Laboratory for Enzyme Technology, Centre for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana, Cuba
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana, Cuba
| | - Humberto García Arellano
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Division of Health and Biological Sciences, Metropolitan Autonomous University, Lerma, Mexico, Mexico
| | - Alberto Del Monte-Martínez
- Laboratory for Enzyme Technology, Centre for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana, Cuba
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Rao Gajula SN, Pillai MS, Samanthula G, Sonti R. Cytochrome P450 enzymes: a review on drug metabolizing enzyme inhibition studies in drug discovery and development. Bioanalysis 2021; 13:1355-1378. [PMID: 34517735 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2021-0132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Assessment of drug candidate's potential to inhibit cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes remains crucial in pharmaceutical drug discovery and development. Both direct and time-dependent inhibition of drug metabolizing CYP enzymes by the concomitant administered drug is the leading cause of drug-drug interactions (DDIs), resulting in the increased toxicity of the victim drug. In this context, pharmaceutical companies have grown increasingly diligent in limiting CYP inhibition liabilities of drug candidates in the early stages and examining risk assessments throughout the drug development process. This review discusses different strategies and decision-making processes for assessing the drug-drug interaction risks by enzyme inhibition and lays particular emphasis on in vitro study designs and interpretation of CYP inhibition data in a stage-appropriate context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siva Nageswara Rao Gajula
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Balanagar, Telangana, 50003, India
| | - Megha Sajakumar Pillai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Balanagar, Telangana, 50003, India
| | - Gananadhamu Samanthula
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Balanagar, Telangana, 50003, India
| | - Rajesh Sonti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Balanagar, Telangana, 50003, India
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Abaffy T, Matsunami H. 19-hydroxy Steroids in the Aromatase Reaction: Review on Expression and Potential Functions. J Endocr Soc 2021; 5:bvab050. [PMID: 34095690 PMCID: PMC8169043 DOI: 10.1210/jendso/bvab050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Scientific evidence related to the aromatase reaction in various biological processes spanning from mid-1960 to today is abundant; however, as our analytical sensitivity increases, a new look at the old chemical reaction is necessary. Here, we review an irreversible aromatase reaction from the substrate androstenedione. It proceeds in 3 consecutive steps. In the first 2 steps, 19-hydroxy steroids are produced. In the third step, estrone is produced. They can dissociate from the enzyme complex and either accumulate in tissues or enter the blood. In this review, we want to highlight the potential importance of these 19-hydroxy steroids in various physiological and pathological conditions. We focus primarily on 19-hydroxy steroids, and in particular on the 19-hydroxyandrostenedione produced by the incomplete aromatase reaction. Using a PubMed database and the search term “aromatase reaction,” 19-hydroxylation of androgens and steroid measurements, we detail the chemistry of the aromatase reaction and list previous and current methods used to measure 19-hydroxy steroids. We present evidence of the existence of 19-hydroxy steroids in brain tissue, ovaries, testes, adrenal glands, prostate cancer, as well as during pregnancy and parturition and in Cushing’s disease. Based on the available literature, a potential involvement of 19-hydroxy steroids in the brain differentiation process, sperm motility, ovarian function, and hypertension is suggested and warrants future research. We hope that with the advancement of highly specific and sensitive analytical methods, future research into 19-hydroxy steroids will be encouraged, as much remains to be learned and discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Abaffy
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Hiroaki Matsunami
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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Musa AM, Kiely J, Luxton R, Honeychurch KC. Recent progress in screen-printed electrochemical sensors and biosensors for the detection of estrogens. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Engineered human CYP2C9 and its main polymorphic variants for bioelectrochemical measurements of catalytic response. Bioelectrochemistry 2020; 138:107729. [PMID: 33421896 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2020.107729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Polymorphism is an important aspect in drug metabolism responsible for different individual response to drug dosage, often leading to adverse drug reactions. Here human CYP2C9 as well as its polymorphic variants CYP2C9*2 and CYP2C9*3 present in approximately 35% of the Caucasian population have been engineered by linking their gene to the one of D. vulgaris flavodoxin (FLD) that acts as regulator of the electron flow from the electrode surface to the haem. The redox properties of the immobilised proteins were investigated by cyclic voltammetry and electrocatalysis was measured in presence of the largely used anticoagulant drug S-warfarin, marker substrate for CYP2C9. Immobilisation of the CYP2C9-FLD, CYP2C9*2-FLD and CYP2C9*3-FLD on DDAB modified glassy carbon electrodes showed well defined redox couples on the oxygen-free cyclic voltammograms and mid-point potentials of all enzymes were calculated. Electrocatalysis in presence of substrate and quantification of the product formed showed lower catalytic activities for the CYP2C9*3-FLD (2.73 ± 1.07 min-1) and CYP2C9*2-FLD (12.42 ± 2.17 min-1) compared to the wild type CYP2C9-FLD (18.23 ± 1.29 min-1). These differences in activity among the CYP2C9 variants are in line with the reported literature data, and this set the basis for the use of the bio-electrode for the measurement of the different catalytic responses towards drugs very relevant in therapy.
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Kuzikov AV, Masamrekh RA, Filippova TA, Haurychenka YI, Gilep AA, Shkel TV, Strushkevich NV, Usanov SA, Shumyantseva VV. Electrochemical oxidation of estrogens as a method for CYP19A1 (aromatase) electrocatalytic activity determination. Electrochim Acta 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2019.135539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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7
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Castrignanò S, Di Nardo G, Sadeghi SJ, Gilardi G. Influence of inter-domain dynamics and surrounding environment flexibility on the direct electrochemistry and electrocatalysis of self-sufficient cytochrome P450 3A4-BMR chimeras. J Inorg Biochem 2018; 188:9-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 07/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Xu X, Bai G, Song L, Zheng Q, Yao Y, Liu S, Yao C. Fast steroid hormone metabolism assays with electrochemical liver microsomal bioreactor based on polydopamine encapsulated gold-graphene nanocomposite. Electrochim Acta 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2017.11.195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Di Nardo G, Cimicata G, Baravalle R, Dell'Angelo V, Ciaramella A, Catucci G, Ugliengo P, Gilardi G. Working at the membrane interface: Ligand-induced changes in dynamic conformation and oligomeric structure in human aromatase. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2017; 65:46-53. [DOI: 10.1002/bab.1613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Di Nardo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology; University of Torino; Torino Italy
- CrisDi; Interdepartmental Center for Crystallography; Torino Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cimicata
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology; University of Torino; Torino Italy
| | - Roberta Baravalle
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology; University of Torino; Torino Italy
| | | | - Alberto Ciaramella
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology; University of Torino; Torino Italy
| | - Gianluca Catucci
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology; University of Torino; Torino Italy
| | - Piero Ugliengo
- Department of Chemistry; University of Torino; Torino Italy
| | - Gianfranco Gilardi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology; University of Torino; Torino Italy
- CrisDi; Interdepartmental Center for Crystallography; Torino Italy
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Baravalle R, Di Nardo G, Bandino A, Barone I, Catalano S, Andò S, Gilardi G. Impact of R264C and R264H polymorphisms in human aromatase function. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 167:23-32. [PMID: 27702664 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The cytochrome P450 aromatase is involved in the last step of sex hormones biosynthesis by converting androgens into estrogens. The human enzyme is highly polymorphic and literature data correlate aromatase single nucleotide polymorphisms to the onset of pathologies such as breast cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. The aims of this study were i) to study the influence of the mutations R264C and R264H on the structure-function of the enzyme also upon phosphorylation by selected kinases and ii) to compare the activity of the variants to that of aromatase wild type in two different cell lines. Far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopy, thermal denaturation experiments and CO-binding assay showed that the two polymorphic variants are correctly folded. Steady-state kinetics experiments showed that rArom R264C and R264H exhibit a 1.5 and 3.4 folds lower catalytic efficiency, respectively, when compared to the wild type protein. Since R264 is part of the consensus motif of PKA and PKG1, phosphorylation experiments were performed to study the effect on aromatase function. Phosphorylation by PKA caused a decrease in activity by 36.2%, 49.3% and 27.9% in the wild type, R264C and R264H proteins respectively. Phosphorylation by PKG1 was also found to decrease the activity by 30.3%, 30.5% and 15.4% in the wild type, R264C and R264H proteins respectively. Experiments performed on the three full-length proteins expressed in human MCF-7 breast cancer cells and rat ST14A neuronal cells showed that, depending on the cell line used, the activity of the proteins is different, implicating different cellular mechanisms modulating aromatase activity. This work demonstrate that R264 polymorphism causes an intrinsic alteration of aromatase activity together with a different consensus for phosphorylation by different kinases, indicating that estrogen production can be different when such mutations are present. These findings are significant in understanding the onset and treatment of pathologies in which aromatase has been shown to be involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Baravalle
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123 Torino, Italy
| | - Giovanna Di Nardo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123 Torino, Italy; CrisDi, Interdepartmental Center for Crystallography, via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125, Torino, Italy
| | - Andrea Bandino
- Department of Medicine and Experimental Oncology, University of Torino, Via Michelangelo 27, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Ines Barone
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Stefania Catalano
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Sebastiano Andò
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Gilardi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123 Torino, Italy; CrisDi, Interdepartmental Center for Crystallography, via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125, Torino, Italy.
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Martin LL, Kubeil C, Simonov AN, Kuznetsov VL, Corbin CJ, Auchus RJ, Conley AJ, Bond AM, Rodgers RJ. Electrochemistry of cytochrome P450 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (P450c17). Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 441:62-67. [PMID: 27702589 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2016.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Within the superfamily of cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s), there is a small class which is functionally employed for steroid biosynthesis. The enzymes in this class appear to have a small active site to accommodate the steroid substrates specifically and snuggly, prior to the redox transformation or hydroxylation to form a product. Cytochrome P450c17 is one of these and is also a multi-functional P450, with two activities, the first 17α-hydroxylation of pregnenolone is followed by a subsequent 17,20-lyase transformation to dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) as the dominant pathways to cortisol precursors or androgens in humans, respectively. How P450c17 regulates these two redox reactions is of special interest. There is a paucity of direct electrochemical studies on steroidogenic P450s, and in this mini-review we provide an overview of these studies with P450c17. Historical consideration as to the difficulties in obtaining reliable electrochemistry due to issues of handling proteins on an electrode, together with advances in the electrochemical techniques are addressed. Recent work using Fourier transformed alternating current voltammetry is highlighted as this technique can provide both catalytic information simultaneously with the underlying redox transfer with the P450 haem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisandra L Martin
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia.
| | - Clemens Kubeil
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Alexandr N Simonov
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Vladimir L Kuznetsov
- Boreskov Institute of Catalysis, Prospekt Lavrentieva 5, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - C Jo Corbin
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Richard J Auchus
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Alan J Conley
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Alan M Bond
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Raymond J Rodgers
- Discipline of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
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Heme iron centers in cytochrome P450: structure and catalytic activity. RENDICONTI LINCEI-SCIENZE FISICHE E NATURALI 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s12210-016-0565-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Kuzikov AV, Masamrekh RA, Khatri Y, Zavialova MG, Bernhardt R, Archakov AI, Shumyantseva VV. Scrutiny of electrochemically-driven electrocatalysis of C-19 steroid 1α-hydroxylase (CYP260A1) from Sorangium cellulosum So ce56. Anal Biochem 2016; 513:28-35. [PMID: 27567992 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2016.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Direct electrochemistry and bioelectrocatalysis of a newly discovered C-19 steroid 1α-hydroxylase (CYP260A1) from the myxobacterium Sorangium cellulosum So ce56 were investigated. CYP260A1 was immobilized on screen-printed graphite electrodes (SPE) modified with gold nanoparticles, stabilized by didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (SPE/DDAB/Au). Cyclic voltammograms in argon-saturated substrate free 0.1 M potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, and in enzyme-substrate complex with androstenedione demonstrated a redox processes with a single redox couple of E(0') of -299 ± 16 mV and -297.5 ± 21 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl), respectively. CYP260A1 exhibited an electrocatalytic activity detected by an increase of the reduction current in the presence of dissolved oxygen and upon addition of the substrate (androstenedione) in the air-saturated buffer. The catalytic current of the enzyme correlated with substrate concentration in the electrochemical system and this dependence can be described by electrochemical Michaelis-Menten model. The products of CYP260A1-depended electrolysis at controlled working electrode potential of androstenedione were analyzed by mass-spectrometry. MS analysis revealed a mono-hydroxylated product of CYP260A1-dependent electrocatalytic reaction towards androstenedione.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey V Kuzikov
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Pogodinskaya Street, 10, Moscow 119121, Russia; Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianov Street, 1, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Rami A Masamrekh
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Pogodinskaya Street, 10, Moscow 119121, Russia; Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianov Street, 1, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Yogan Khatri
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbruecken 66123, Germany
| | - Maria G Zavialova
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Pogodinskaya Street, 10, Moscow 119121, Russia
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbruecken 66123, Germany
| | - Alexander I Archakov
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Pogodinskaya Street, 10, Moscow 119121, Russia; Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianov Street, 1, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Victoria V Shumyantseva
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Pogodinskaya Street, 10, Moscow 119121, Russia; Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianov Street, 1, Moscow 117997, Russia.
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Di Nardo G, Dell'Angelo V, Catucci G, Sadeghi SJ, Gilardi G. Subtle structural changes in the Asp251Gly/Gln307His P450 BM3 mutant responsible for new activity toward diclofenac, tolbutamide and ibuprofen. Arch Biochem Biophys 2015; 602:106-115. [PMID: 26718083 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2015.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
This paper reports the structure of the double mutant Asp251Gly/Gln307His (named A2) generated by random mutagenesis, able to produce 4'-hydroxydiclofenac, 2-hydroxyibuprofen and 4-hydroxytolbutamide from diclofenac, ibuprofen and tolbutamide, respectively. The 3D structure of the substrate-free mutant shows a conformation similar to the closed one found in the substrate-bound wild type enzyme, but with a higher degree of disorder in the region of the G-helix and F-G loop. This is due to the mutation Asp251Gly that breaks the salt bridge between Aps251 on I-helix and Lys224 on G-helix, allowing the G-helix to move away from I-helix and conferring a higher degree of flexibility to this element. This subtle structural change is accompanied by long-range structural rearrangements of the active site with the rotation of Phe87 and a reorganization of catalytically important water molecules. The impact of these structural features on thermal stability, reduction potential and electron transfer is investigated. The data demonstrate that a single mutation far from the active site triggers an increase in protein flexibility in a key region, shifting the conformational equilibrium toward the closed form that is ready to accept electrons and enter the P450 catalytic cycle as soon as a substrate is accepted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Di Nardo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, Torino, Italy; CrisDi, Interdepartmental Center for Crystallography, University of Torino, Via Pietro Giuria 7, Torino, Italy
| | - Valentina Dell'Angelo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, Torino, Italy
| | - Gianluca Catucci
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, Torino, Italy
| | - Sheila J Sadeghi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, Torino, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Gilardi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, Torino, Italy; CrisDi, Interdepartmental Center for Crystallography, University of Torino, Via Pietro Giuria 7, Torino, Italy
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