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Walker NL, Dick JE. On the mechanism of the bipolar reference electrode. Analyst 2023; 148:2149-2158. [PMID: 37042122 PMCID: PMC10308696 DOI: 10.1039/d3an00107e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Commercial silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) reference electrodes are some of the most commonly used reference electrodes, but they suffer from a number of issues due to their porous frits. Such issues include difficulty miniaturizing, silver and chloride ion leakage, charge screening effects at low ionic strength, frit drying if left unattended in air, and incompatibility with organic solvents. To solve these issues, we recently designed a reference electrode that is leakless in principle by replacing the porous frit with a sealed, conductive wire, where the ends of the wire are exposed to the reference electrode solution and the working electrode solution. We hypothesized that the reference electrode operated like a closed, bipolar electrochemical cell, and we termed the name bipolar reference electrode (BPRE). Here, we provide evidence that the BPRE can either act as a reference electrode by operating through an ion transfer mechanism via leakage through the imperfect seal, or it can act as a highly stable quasi-reference electrode through a bipolar electron transfer mechanism (BPQRE). Finally, we demonstrate the effectiveness of the BPRE in other types of common electrochemical studies, including chronoamperometry, linear sweep voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L Walker
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
| | - Jeffrey E Dick
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
- Elmore Family School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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2
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Etman A, Ibrahim A, Darwish F, Qasim K. A 10 years-developmental study on conducting polymers composites for supercapacitors electrodes: a review for extensive data interpretation. J IND ENG CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2023.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
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3
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Satoh Y, Ding H, Yang H, Deng Y, Hsueh AJ, Shimizu T, Qiao M, Ma C, Kariya K, Kurihara T, Suzuki H. Wired Microfabricated Electrochemical Systems. Anal Chem 2021; 93:12655-12663. [PMID: 34476942 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c02461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Metal wires have been used as an alternative to liquid junctions for the connection of solutions in microfabricated electrochemical devices. They exhibit similar performance to liquid junctions, provided that the interfacial potentials at both ends of the wires were appropriately canceled. Cyclic voltammograms of devices with liquid junctions and metal wires were very similar when no current or a low current flowed through the metal wire between the working and reference electrodes. Iridium wires with iridium oxide at both ends facilitated canceling of the interfacial potentials at either end of the junction particularly well, and were used effectively for voltammetry, amperometry, and potentiometry by adjusting the pH of the solutions in the working and reference electrode compartments to be equal. This approach was used to effectively integrate a reliable common reference electrode between multiple working electrodes and to conduct automated electrochemical control of solution transport in microfluidic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusei Satoh
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Hanlin Ding
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Hao Yang
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Yi Deng
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - An-Ju Hsueh
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Shimizu
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Mu Qiao
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Chengrui Ma
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Koki Kariya
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Toshiaki Kurihara
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Suzuki
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
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Bouffier L, Zigah D, Sojic N, Kuhn A. Bipolar (Bio)electroanalysis. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2021; 14:65-86. [PMID: 33940930 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-090820-093307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This contribution reviews a selection of the most recent studies on the use of bipolar electrochemistry in the framework of analytical chemistry. Despite the fact that the concept is not new, with several important studies dating back to the middle of the last century, completely novel and very original approaches have emerged over the last decade. This current revival illustrates that scientists still (re)discover some exciting virtues of this approach, which are useful in many different areas, especially for tackling analytical challenges in an unconventional way. In several cases, this "wireless" electrochemistry strategy enables carrying out measurements that are simply not possible with classic electrochemical approaches. This review will hopefully stimulate new ideas and trigger scientists to integrate some aspects of bipolar electrochemistry in their work in order to drive the topic into yet unexplored and eventually completely unexpected directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Bouffier
- Bordeaux INP, Institute of Molecular Science, and CNRS UMR 5255, University of Bordeaux, 33607 Pessac, France; , , ,
| | - Dodzi Zigah
- Bordeaux INP, Institute of Molecular Science, and CNRS UMR 5255, University of Bordeaux, 33607 Pessac, France; , , ,
| | - Neso Sojic
- Bordeaux INP, Institute of Molecular Science, and CNRS UMR 5255, University of Bordeaux, 33607 Pessac, France; , , ,
| | - Alexander Kuhn
- Bordeaux INP, Institute of Molecular Science, and CNRS UMR 5255, University of Bordeaux, 33607 Pessac, France; , , ,
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Walker NL, Dick JE. Leakless, Bipolar Reference Electrodes: Fabrication, Performance, and Miniaturization. Anal Chem 2021; 93:10065-10074. [PMID: 34263595 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Reference electrodes must maintain a well-defined potential for long periods of time to be useful. The silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) reference electrode is arguably the most widely used reference electrode, but it leaks silver and chloride ions into the sample solution through the porous frit over time. Further, the porous frit makes miniaturization to the micro- and nanoscale challenging. Here, we present an alternative, where the traditional Ag/AgCl reference electrode porous frit is replaced by a conductive wire, preventing ion leakage and allowing miniaturization to the microscale. Charge balance is maintained through a closed bipolar electrochemical mechanism, where faradaic processes occur on each end of the sealed wire. Using the above design, we demonstrate the efficacy of the leakless, bipolar reference electrode (BPRE) and miniaturize it to the microscale (μ-leakless BPRE). Importantly, we demonstrate that leakless and μ-leakless BPREs behave the same as commercial reference electrodes during potentiometric measurements and leakless BPREs perform similarly during voltammetric measurements on ultramicroelectrodes. We demonstrate that the drift during voltammetry using a leakless BPRE on a macroelectrode is slightly more appreciable compared to the drift seen with a commercial reference electrode. We detail design principles for the use of leakless BPREs in nonaqueous solvents and in sealing other conductive materials (e.g., gold and carbon). Using mass spectrometry, we show that the maximum leakage of methylene blue is 0.36 fmol/s, at least 2 orders of magnitude smaller than that of commercial reference electrodes. Finally, we demonstrate the efficacy of using leakless BPREs in potentiometric glucose sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L Walker
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599 Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States
| | - Jeffrey E Dick
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599 Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States.,Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599 Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States
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Anshori I, Takie S, Suzuki H. Active Junctions to Improve Sensitivity and Detection Limit of a Microdevice Based on Coulometry Coupled with Silver Metallization. ELECTROANAL 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201800825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Isa Anshori
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied SciencesUniversity of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573 Japan
| | - Shuichi Takie
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied SciencesUniversity of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573 Japan
| | - Hiroaki Suzuki
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied SciencesUniversity of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573 Japan
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Zhang JD, Hao N, Lu L, Yun S, Zhu XF, Hong K, Feng LD. High-efficient preparation and screening of electrocatalysts using a closed bipolar electrode array system. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2018.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Ito K, Inoue KY, Ino K, Matsue T, Shiku H. A highly sensitive endotoxin sensor based on redox cycling in a nanocavity. Analyst 2019; 144:3659-3667. [DOI: 10.1039/c9an00478e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A highly sensitive endotoxin sensor and novel analytical principle using diffusion coefficient difference was developed using a nanocavity device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Ito
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
| | - Kumi Y. Inoue
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
| | - Kosuke Ino
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- Graduate School of Engineering
- Tohoku University
- Sendai 980-8579
- Japan
| | - Tomokazu Matsue
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
| | - Hitoshi Shiku
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- Graduate School of Engineering
- Tohoku University
- Sendai 980-8579
- Japan
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9
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Closed bipolar electrode system for a liquid-junction-free reference electrode integrated in an amperometric probe sensor. Electrochem commun 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2018.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
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10
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Inoue KY, Ikegawa M, Ito-Sasaki T, Takano S, Shiku H, Matsue T. Simultaneous Multiplex Potentiostatic Electroanalysis with Liquid-Junction-Removed Reference Electrode System using a Closed Bipolar Electrode. ChemElectroChem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201800536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kumi Y. Inoue
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies; Tohoku University; 6-6-11 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Miho Ikegawa
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies; Tohoku University; 6-6-11 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Takahiro Ito-Sasaki
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies; Tohoku University; 6-6-11 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Shinichiro Takano
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies; Tohoku University; 6-6-11 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Hitoshi Shiku
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies; Tohoku University; 6-6-11 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Tomokazu Matsue
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies; Tohoku University; 6-6-11 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba Sendai 980-8579 Japan
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Zhang X, Zhai Q, Xing H, Li J, Wang E. Bipolar Electrodes with 100% Current Efficiency for Sensors. ACS Sens 2017; 2:320-326. [PMID: 28723210 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.7b00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A bipolar electrode (BPE) is an electron conductor that is embedded in the electrolyte solution without the direct connection with the external power source (driving electrode). When the sufficient voltage was provided, the two poles of BPE promote different oxidation and reduction reactions. During the past few years, BPEs with wireless feature and easy integration showed great promise in the various fields including asymmetric modification/synthesis, motion control, targets enrichment/separation, and chemical sensing/biosensing combined with the quantitative relationship between two poles of BPE. In this perspective paper, we first describe the concept and history of the BPE for analytical chemistry and then review the recent developments in the application of BPEs for sensing with ultrahigh current efficiency (ηc = iBPE/ichannel) including the open and closed bipolar system. Finally, we offer the guide for possible challenge faced and solution in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Zhang
- State
Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, Jilin 130022, China
- Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, P. R. China
| | - Qingfeng Zhai
- State
Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, Jilin 130022, China
- Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, P. R. China
| | - Huanhuan Xing
- State
Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, Jilin 130022, China
- Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, P. R. China
| | - Jing Li
- State
Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, Jilin 130022, China
- Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, P. R. China
| | - Erkang Wang
- State
Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, Jilin 130022, China
- Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, P. R. China
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12
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Meng F, Liang W, Sun H, Wu L, Gong X, Miao P. A Peptide-Based Electrochemical Biosensor for Facile Measurement of Whole-Blood Heparin. ChemElectroChem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201600680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fanyu Meng
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Suzhou 215163 P. R. China
| | - Weiguo Liang
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Suzhou 215163 P. R. China
| | - Haixuan Sun
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Suzhou 215163 P. R. China
| | - Ligang Wu
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Suzhou 215163 P. R. China
| | - Xiao Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures; Wuhan University of Technology; Wuhan 430070 P. R. China
| | - Peng Miao
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Suzhou 215163 P. R. China
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13
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Zhang JD, Zhao WW, Xu JJ, Chen HY. Electrochemical behaviors in closed bipolar system with three-electrode driving mode. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2016.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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