1
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Tully JJ, Zhang Z, Terrero Rodríguez IM, Butcher L, Macpherson JV. Versatile DIY Route for Incorporation of a Wide Range of Electrode Materials into Rotating Ring Disk Electrodes. Anal Chem 2022; 94:9856-9862. [PMID: 35767370 PMCID: PMC9280712 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c01744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
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Rotating ring disk
electrodes (RRDEs) are a powerful and versatile
tool for mechanistically investigating electrochemical reactions at
electrode surfaces, particularly in the area of electroanalysis and
catalysis. Despite their importance, only limited electrode materials
(typically glassy carbon, platinum, and gold) and combinations thereof
are available commercially. In this work, we present a method employing
three-dimensional (3D) printing in conjunction with machined brass
components to produce housing, which can accommodate any electrode
material in, e.g., pressed powdered pellet, wafer,
rod, foil, or vapor deposited onto a conductive substrate form. In
this way, the range and usability of RRDEs is extended. This custom
do-it-yourself (DIY) approach to fabricating RRDEs also enables RRDEs
to be produced at a significant fraction of the cost of commercial
RRDEs. To illustrate the versatility of our approach, coplanar boron-doped
diamond (BDD) RRDEs are fabricated for the first time using the approach
described. Experimental collection efficiencies for the redox couple
FcTMA+/FcTMA2+ are found to be very close to
those predicted theoretically. BDD electrodes serve as an ideal electrocatalyst
support due to their low background currents, wide solvent potential
window in aqueous solution, and chemical and electrochemical stability
in acid and alkali solutions. The BDD RRDE configuration is employed
to investigate the importance of surface-incorporated nondiamond carbon
in BDD on hydrogen peroxide generation via the oxygen
reduction reaction in acid solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J Tully
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | - Zhaoyan Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | | | - Lee Butcher
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
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2
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Krivenko AG, Manzhos RA, Kochergin VK, Kotkin AS, Pleskov YV, Krotova MD, Ekimov EA. Compacts of Boron-Doped Synthetic Diamond: Acceleration of Cathodic Reactions by Plasma-Assisted and Electrochemical Treatment of the Electrodes. RUSS J ELECTROCHEM+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1023193522050068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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3
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Krivenko A, Manzhos R, Kochergin V, Kotkin A, Pleskov Y, Krotova M, Ekimov E. Effect of plasma-assisted electrochemical treatment of the boron-doped synthetic diamond compact electrodes on the oxygen electroreduction kinetics. Electrochim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2021.138843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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4
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Liu Z, Sartori AF, Buijnsters JG. Role of sp2 carbon in non-enzymatic electrochemical sensing of glucose using boron-doped diamond electrodes. Electrochem commun 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2021.107096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
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5
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A simple, fast, and cost-effective analytical method for monitoring active quinones in a H2O2 production process. Microchem J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2020.105861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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6
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Rabboh FM, O'Neil GD. Voltammetric pH Measurements in Unadulterated Foodstuffs, Urine, and Serum with 3D-Printed Graphene/Poly(Lactic Acid) Electrodes. Anal Chem 2020; 92:14999-15006. [PMID: 33140638 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The pH of a system is a critical descriptor of its chemistry-impacting reaction rates, solubility, chemical speciation, and homeostasis. As a result, pH is one of the most commonly measured parameters in food safety, clinical, and environmental laboratories. Glass pH probes are the gold standard for pH measurements but suffer drawbacks including frequent recalibration, wet storage of the glass membrane, difficulty in miniaturization, and interferences from alkali metals. In this work, we describe a voltammetric pH sensor that uses a three-dimensional (3D)-printed graphene/poly(lactic acid) filament electrode that is pretreated to introduce quinone functional groups to the graphene surface. After thoroughly characterizing the pretreatment parameters using outer-sphere and inner-sphere redox couples, we measured pH by reducing the surface-bound quinones, which undergo a pH-dependent 2e-/2H+ reduction. The position of the redox peak was found to shift -60 ± 2 mV pH-1 at 25 °C, which is in excellent agreement with the theoretical value predicted by the Nernst Equation (-59.2 mV pH-1). Importantly, the sensors did not require the removal of dissolved oxygen prior to successful pH measurements. We investigated the impact of common interfering species (Pb2+ and Cu2+) and found that there was no impact on the measured pH. We subsequently challenged the sensors to measure the pH of unadulterated complex samples, including cola, vinegar, an antacid tablet slurry, serum, and urine, and obtained excellent agreement compared to a glass pH electrode. In addition to the positive analytical characteristics, the sensors are extremely cheap and easy to fabricate, making them highly accessible to a wide range of researchers. These results pave the way for customizable pH sensors that can be fabricated in (nearly) any geometry for targeted applications using 3D printing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fakher M Rabboh
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montclair State University, Montclair, New Jersey 07043, United States
| | - Glen D O'Neil
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montclair State University, Montclair, New Jersey 07043, United States
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7
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Sarakhman O, Švorc Ľ. A Review on Recent Advances in the Applications of Boron-Doped Diamond Electrochemical Sensors in Food Analysis. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2020; 52:791-813. [PMID: 33028086 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2020.1828028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The usage of boron-doped diamond (BDD) material has found to be very attractive in modern electroanalytical methods and received massive consideration as perspective electrochemical sensor due to its outstanding (electro)chemical properties. These generally known facilities include large potential window, low background currents, ability to withstand extreme potentials and strong tendency to resist fouling compared to conventional carbon-based electrodes. As evidence of superiority of this material, couple of reviews describing the overview of various applications of BDD electrodes in the field of analytical and material chemistry has been reported in scientific literature during last decade. However, herein proposed review predominantly focuses on the most recent developments (from 2009 to 2020) dealing with the application of BDD as an advanced and environmental-friendly sensor platform in food analysis. The main method characteristics of analysis of various organic food components with different chemical properties, including additives, flavor and aroma components, phenolic compounds, flavonoids and pesticides in food matrices are described in more details. The importance of BDD surface termination, presence of sp2 content and boron doping level on electrochemical sensing is discussed. Apart from this, a special attention is paid to the evaluation of main analytical characteristics of the BDD electrochemical sensor in single- and multi-analyte detection mode in food analysis. The recent achievements in the utilizing of BDD electrodes in amperometric detection coupled to flow injection analysis, batch injection analysis, and high-performance liquid chromatography are also commented. Moreover, actual trends in sample preparation techniques prior to electrochemical sensing in food analysis are referred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olha Sarakhman
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Ľubomír Švorc
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
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8
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Rajan TS, Read TL, Abdalla A, Patel BA, Macpherson JV. Ex Vivo Electrochemical pH Mapping of the Gastrointestinal Tract in the Absence and Presence of Pharmacological Agents. ACS Sens 2020; 5:2858-2865. [PMID: 32633120 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Ex vivo pH profiling of the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract (of a mouse), using an electrochemical pH probe, in both the absence and presence of pharmacological agents aimed at altering acid/bicarbonate production, is reported. Three pH electrodes were first assessed for suitability using a GI tract biological mimic buffer solution containing 0.5% mucin. These include a traditional glass pH probe, an iridium oxide (IrOx)-coated electrode (both operated potentiometrically), and a quinone (Q) surface-integrated boron-doped diamond (BDD-Q) electrode (voltammetric). In mucin, the time scale for both IrOx and glass to provide a representative pH reading was in the ∼100's of s, most likely due to mucin adsorption, in contrast to 6 s with the BDD-Q electrode. Both the glass and IrOx pH electrodes were also compromised on robustness due to fragility and delamination (IrOx) issues; contact with the GI tissue was an experimental requirement. BDD-Q was deemed the most appropriate. Ten measurements were made along the GI tract, esophagus (1), stomach (5), and duodenum (4). Under buffer only conditions, the BDD-Q probe tracked the pH from neutral in the esophagus to acidic in the stomach and rising to more alkaline in the duodenum. In the presence of omeprazole, a proton pump inhibitor, the body regions of the stomach exhibited elevated pH levels. Under melatonin treatment (a bicarbonate agonist and acid inhibitor), both the body of the stomach and the duodenum showed elevated pH levels. This study demonstrates the versatility of the BDD-Q pH electrode for real-time ex vivo biological tissue measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teena S. Rajan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
- Diamond Science and Technology CDT, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | - Tania L. Read
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | - Aya Abdalla
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Science, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4AT, U.K
| | - Bhavik A. Patel
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Science, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4AT, U.K
| | - Julie V. Macpherson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
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9
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Lucio AJ, Meyler RE, Edwards MA, Macpherson JV. Investigation of sp 2-Carbon Pattern Geometry in Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes for the Electrochemical Quantification of Hypochlorite at High Concentrations. ACS Sens 2020; 5:789-797. [PMID: 32041399 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b02444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
An electrochemical sensor that contains patterned regions of sp2-carbon in a boron-doped diamond (BDD) matrix is presented for the quantitative detection of hypochlorite (OCl-) at high concentrations in the alkaline, chemically oxidizing environment associated with bleach. As BDD itself is unresponsive to OCl- reduction within the solvent window, by using a laser micromachining process, it is possible to write robust electrochemically active regions of sp2-carbon into the electrochemically inert sp3-BDD electrode. In this work, four different laser patterned BDD electrodes are examined, and their response compared across a range of OCl- concentrations (0.02-1.50 M). A single macrospot (0.37 mm diameter disk) electrode and a closely spaced microspot (46 μm diameter disk) hexagonal array electrode, containing the same surface area of sp2-carbon, are shown to provide the most linear response toward OCl- reduction. Finite element modeling (FEM) is employed to better understand the electrochemical system, due to the complexity of the electrode geometry, as well as the need to include contributions from migration and Ohmic drop at these high concentrations. FEM data suggest that only a small percentage (∼1 × 10-3%) of the total laser-machined sp2 area is active toward the OCl- reduction process and that this process is kinetically very sluggish (∼keff = 1 × 10-12 cm s-1). The sensitivity at the array electrode (-0.127 ± 0.004 mA M-1; R2 = 0.992) is higher than that at the single-spot electrode (-0.075 ± 0.002 mA M-1; R2 = 0.996) due to the enhanced effect of transport to the edges of the microspots, shown via simulation. The electrodes returned a relatively stable response over a greater than 3 month period of use in the OCl- solutions, demonstrating these hybrid sp2-BDD electrodes show promise for long-term monitoring applications in the harsh environments associated with bleaching applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J. Lucio
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Roy E.P. Meyler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Martin A. Edwards
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Julie V. Macpherson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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10
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Xu J, Yokota Y, Wong RA, Kim Y, Einaga Y. Unusual Electrochemical Properties of Low-Doped Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes Containing sp 2 Carbon. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:2310-2316. [PMID: 31927922 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b11183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Unexpected phenomena displayed by low-boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes are disclosed in the present work. Generally, the presence of sp2 nondiamond carbon impurities in BDD electrodes causes undesirable electrochemical properties, such as a reduced potential window and increased background current, etc. However, we found that the potential window and redox reaction in normally doped (1%) BDD and low-doped (0.1%) BDD exhibited opposite tendencies depending on the extent of sp2 carbon. Moreover, we found that contrary to the usual expectations, low-doped BDD containing sp2 carbon hinders electron transfer, whereas in line with expectations, normally doped BDD containing sp2 exhibits enhanced electron transfer. Surface analyses by X-ray/ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS/UPS) and electrochemical methods are utilized to explain these unusual phenomena. This work indicates that the electrochemical properties of low-doped BDD containing sp2 might be due partially to the high level of surface oxygen, the large work function, the low carrier density, and the existence of different types of sp2 carbon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Xu
- Department of Chemistry , Keio University , 3-14-1 Hiyoshi , Yokohama 223-8522 , Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Yokota
- Surface and Interface Science Laboratory , RIKEN , 2-1 Hirosawa , Wako , Saitama 351-0198 , Japan
| | - Raymond A Wong
- Surface and Interface Science Laboratory , RIKEN , 2-1 Hirosawa , Wako , Saitama 351-0198 , Japan
| | - Yousoo Kim
- Surface and Interface Science Laboratory , RIKEN , 2-1 Hirosawa , Wako , Saitama 351-0198 , Japan
| | - Yasuaki Einaga
- Department of Chemistry , Keio University , 3-14-1 Hiyoshi , Yokohama 223-8522 , Japan.,ACCEL , JST , 3-14-1 Hiyoshi , Yokohama , Kanagawa 223-8522 , Japan
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11
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Cobb SJ, Macpherson JV. Enhancing Square Wave Voltammetry Measurements via Electrochemical Analysis of the Non-Faradaic Potential Window. Anal Chem 2019; 91:7935-7942. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b01857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel J. Cobb
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
- Diamond Science and Technology CDT, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
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12
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Read TL, Cobb SJ, Macpherson JV. An sp 2 Patterned Boron Doped Diamond Electrode for the Simultaneous Detection of Dissolved Oxygen and pH. ACS Sens 2019; 4:756-763. [PMID: 30793885 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b00137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A hybrid sp2-sp3 electrochemical sensor comprising patterned regions of nondiamond-carbon (sp2) in a boron doped diamond (sp3) matrix is described for the simultaneous voltammetric detection of dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH in buffered aqueous solutions. Using a laser micropatterning process it is possible to write mechanically robust regions of sp2 carbon into a BDD electrode. These regions both promote the electrocatalytic reduction of oxygen and facilitate the proton coupled electron transfer of quinone groups, integrated into the surface of the sp2 carbon. In this way, in one voltammetric sweep (time of measurement ∼4 s) it is possible to determine both the DO concentration and solution pH. By varying the sp2 pattern the response can be optimized toward both analytes. Using a closely spaced sp2 microspot array, a linear response toward DO, across the range 0.0 to 8.0 mg L-1 (0.0 to 0.25 mM; sensitivity = -8.77 × 10-8 A L mg-1, R2 = 0.9991) and pH range 4-10 (sensitivity = 59.7 mV pH-1, R2 = 0.9983) is demonstrated. The electrode is also capable of measuring both DO concentration and pH in the more complex buffered environment of blood. Finally, we show how the peak position for ORR is independent of pH, and thus via measurement of the difference in ORR and pH peak position, internal referencing is possible. Such electrodes show great promise for use in applications ranging from biomedical sensing to water analysis.
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13
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Yang N, Yu S, Macpherson JV, Einaga Y, Zhao H, Zhao G, Swain GM, Jiang X. Conductive diamond: synthesis, properties, and electrochemical applications. Chem Soc Rev 2019; 48:157-204. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00757d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes systematically the growth, properties, and electrochemical applications of conductive diamond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nianjun Yang
- Institute of Materials Engineering
- University of Siegen
- Siegen 57076
- Germany
| | - Siyu Yu
- Institute of Materials Engineering
- University of Siegen
- Siegen 57076
- Germany
| | | | - Yasuaki Einaga
- Department of Chemistry
- Keio University
- Yokohama 223-8522
- Japan
| | - Hongying Zhao
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering
- Tongji University
- Shanghai 200092
- China
| | - Guohua Zhao
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering
- Tongji University
- Shanghai 200092
- China
| | | | - Xin Jiang
- Institute of Materials Engineering
- University of Siegen
- Siegen 57076
- Germany
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14
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Cobb SJ, Ayres ZJ, Newton ME, Macpherson JV. Deconvoluting Surface-Bound Quinone Proton Coupled Electron Transfer in Unbuffered Solutions: Toward a Universal Voltammetric pH Electrode. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 141:1035-1044. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b11518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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15
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Liu Z, Li H, Li M, Li C, Qian L, Su L, Yang B. Preparation of polycrystalline BDD/Ta electrodes for electrochemical oxidation of organic matter. Electrochim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2018.09.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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16
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Facet‐Resolved Electrochemistry of Polycrystalline Boron‐Doped Diamond Electrodes: Microscopic Factors Determining the Solvent Window in Aqueous Potassium Chloride Solutions. ChemElectroChem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201800770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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17
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Cobb SJ, Ayres ZJ, Macpherson JV. Boron Doped Diamond: A Designer Electrode Material for the Twenty-First Century. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2018; 11:463-484. [PMID: 29579405 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-061417-010107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Boron doped diamond (BDD) is continuing to find numerous electrochemical applications across a diverse range of fields due to its unique properties, such as having a wide solvent window, low capacitance, and reduced resistance to fouling and mechanical robustness. In this review, we showcase the latest developments in the BDD electrochemical field. These are driven by a greater understanding of the relationship between material (surface) properties, required electrochemical performance, and improvements in synthetic growth/fabrication procedures, including material postprocessing. This has resulted in the production of BDD structures with the required function and geometry for the application of interest, making BDD a truly designer material. Current research areas range from in vivo bioelectrochemistry and neuronal/retinal stimulation to improved electroanalysis, advanced oxidation processes, supercapacitors, and the development of hybrid electrochemical-spectroscopic- and temperature-based technology aimed at enhancing electrochemical performance and understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel J Cobb
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom; ,
- Centre for Doctoral Training in Diamond Science and Technology, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom;
| | - Zoe J Ayres
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom; ,
| | - Julie V Macpherson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom; ,
- Centre for Doctoral Training in Diamond Science and Technology, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom;
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