Ionic conductivity, infrared and Raman spectroscopic studies of 1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium iodide ionic liquid with added iodine

A redox active rod coordination polymer from tetrakis(4-carboxylic acid biphenyl)tetrathiafulvalene

An enlarged version of the ubiquitous tetrathiafulvalene-tetrabenzoic acid is described, with 4,4'-biphenyl moieties as spacers between the coordination moieties and the electroactive core. The obtained rectangular ligand has a 14 × 22 Å2 size and is combined with Zn(II) under solvothermal conditions to yield a coordination polymer endowed with large cavities of ca. 15 × 11 Å2/10 × 10 Å2. The topology of the material is discussed in detail using the Points of Extension and Metals (PE&M) or the Straight-rod (STR) representation, and the sqc1121 or tfo topological type of the structure is observed, respectively. Its stability towards solvent removal and electrical properties are discussed. The material does not present any permanent porosity upon desolvation according to nitrogen sorption measurements at 77 K. Nevertheless, a significant increase in conductivity is observed on compressed pellets of the material upon post-synthetic oxidation with iodine. Raman spectroscopy combined with density functional theory (DFT) calculations has been used to characterize the oxidation state of tetrakis(4-carboxylic acid biphenyl)tetrathiafulvalene for coordination polymers.

Effective Enhancement of Energy Density of Zinc-Polyiodide Flow Batteries by Organic/Penta-iodide Complexation

Based on the ambipolar characteristics and high solubility of ZnI2, zinc-polyiodide flow batteries (ZIFB) have attracted attention as high-energy density flow batteries. However, due to the various oxidation products of iodide (I-) and the formation of iodine (I2) solid precipitates at the positive electrode, the limiting state-of-charge (SoC) of ZIFB has not been clearly defined. Herein, a clear definition of SoC in ZIFBs is given based on the thermodynamic relationship among I-(aq), I3-(aq), I5-(aq), and I2(aq) in the electrolyte. Conventional ZIFBs are limited by their maximum attainable SoC of 87%, at which the fully charged catholyte includes I-, I3-, and I5- ions at molar ratios of 49.6, 32.2, and 18.1%, respectively. Furthermore, two effective strategies to extend the maximum SoC are suggested: (1) increasing the formation constant (Keq) of I3- can raise the availability of I- for electrooxidation by suppressing I2 precipitation, and (2) promoting the production of higher-order polyiodides such as I5- can increase the oxidation state of the charged electrolyte. The addition of 5 vol % triethylene glycol (tri-EG) to the electrolyte increased Keq from 710 to 1123 L mol-1; this increase was confirmed spectrophotometrically. Tri-EG stabilized I5- ions in the form of the I5-/tri-EG complex, thereby converting the main oxidation product from I3- to I5-. The preferred electrochemical production of I5- in the tri-EG electrolyte was observed by electrochemical and computational analyses. As a result, the maximum attainable SoC was enhanced remarkably to 116%, yielding molar ratios of I-, I3-, and I5- ions of 9.1, 11.2, and 79.7%, respectively. This SoC extension effect was confirmed in the ZIFB flow cell with stable charge-discharge cycling at the SoC 120% limit, demonstrating the highest energy density, 249.9 Wh L-1, among all reported ZIFBs.

Graphene-Enhanced Ion Transport in Dual-Conducting Composite Films of Polyacetylene and an Imidazolium Iodide Ionic Liquid

Dual-conducting polymer films were synthesized by dispersing graphene in an aqueous solution of poly(vinyl alcohol) and 1-propyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide ([C₃mim]I) ionic liquid and thermally converting the poly(vinyl alcohol) to polyene in the presence of hydroiodic acid catalyst. The electrical and mechanical properties of the resulting free-standing films of the nanocomposite, containing different concentrations of graphene, were analyzed using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), respectively. Nyquist plots (imaginary vs real components of the frequency-dependent impedance) showed two characteristic arcs representing the composite's electronic and ionic conduction pathways. The conductivity values corresponding to both charge transport mechanisms increased with temperature and the graphene concentration. The enhancement in electronic conductivity is expected because of graphene's high electron mobility. Interestingly, ionic conductivity also showed a significant increase with graphene concentration, approximately triple the extent of the rise in the electronic conductivity, even though the loss and storage moduli of the films increased. (Generally, a higher modulus results in lower ionic conductivities in ionic gels.) Molecular dynamics simulations of the three-component system provided some insights into this unusual behavior. Mean square displacement data showed that the diffusion of the iodide anions was relatively isotropic. The iodide diffusion coefficient was higher in a blend with 5 vol % graphene than in blends with 3 vol % graphene or no graphene. The improvement is attributed to the interfacial effects of the graphene on the free volume of the blend. Furthermore, an exclusion of the iodide ions from the vicinity of graphene was observed in the radial distribution function analysis. The increase in the effective concentration of iodide due to this exclusion and the increase in its diffusion coefficient because of the excess free volume are the primary reasons for the observed enhancement in ionic conductivity by adding graphene.

Imidazolium Ionic Liquids as Designer Solvents Confined in Silica Nanopores

Composite silica xerogels were prepared via acid catalysed sol–gel route using tetraethoxysilan (TEOS) as silica precursor, and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate [BMIM][BF₄] or 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [BMIM][Cl] ionic liquids, used simultaneously as co-solvents, catalysts and pore templates, at various IL-to-silica ratios. Morphology of the xerogels prepared using the different IL templating agents were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), nitrogen sorption and small angle neutron scattering (SANS). The thermal behavior of the composites was analyzed by thermal gravimetry, whereas the compositions were checked by infrared spectroscopy and EDX. The differences in the morphology and thermal behavior of the composites due to the different IL additives were revealed.

Triiodide-in-Iodine Networks Stabilized by Quaternary Ammonium Cations as Accelerants for Electrode Kinetics of Iodide Oxidation in Aqueous Media

The Zn-polyiodide redox flow battery is considered to be a promising aqueous energy storage system. However, in its charging process, the electrode kinetics of I^- oxidation often suffer from an intrinsically generated iodine film (I₂-F) on the cathode of the battery. Therefore, it is critical to both understand and enhance the observed slow electrode kinetics of I^- oxidation by an electrochemically generated I₂-F. In this article, we introduced an electrogenerated N-methyl-N-ethyl pyrrolidinium iodide (MEPI)-iodine (I₂) solution, designated as MEPIS, and demonstrated that the electrode kinetics of I^- oxidation were dramatically enhanced compared to an I₂-F under conventional electrolyte conditions, such as NaI. We showed that this result mainly contributed to the fast electro-oxidation of triiodide (I₃^-), which exists in the shape of a I₃^--in-I₂ network, [I₃^-·(I₂)_n]. Raman spectroscopic and electrochemical analyses showed that the composition of electrogenerated MEPIS changed from I₃^- to [I₃^-·(I₂)_n] via I₅^- as the anodic overpotential increased. We also confirmed that I^- was electrochemically oxidized on a MEPIS-modified Pt electrode with fast electrode kinetics, which is clearly contrary to the nature of an I₂-F derived from a NaI solution as a kinetic barrier of I^- oxidation. Through stochastic MEPIS-particle impact electrochemistry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, we revealed that the enhanced electrode kinetics of I^- oxidation in MEPIS can be attributed to the facilitated charge transfer of I₃^- oxidation in [I₃^-·(I₂)_n]. In addition, we found that the degree of freedom of I₃^- in a quaternary ammonium-based I₂-F can also be critical to determine the kinetics of the electro-oxidation of I^-, which is that MEPIS showed more enhanced charge-transfer kinetics of I^- oxidation compared to tetrabutylammonium I₃^- due to the higher degree of freedom of I₃^-.

Novel cyclen-polyiodide complexes: a reappraisal of I-I covalent and secondary bond limits

Supramolecular stabilization of polyiodides and iodine-dense phases is of high interest: this study explores the possibilities offered in this sense by diprotonated cyclen, affording two novel crystal structures. One of them contains at least one peculiar I⋯I interatomic distance (3.305(1) Å), falling well below the region commonly described by secondary bonding (3.4-3.7 Å) and essentially equal to the accepted limit for covalent bonding (3.30 Å): in other words, according to threshold distance values, we are relatively free to regard this interaction either as a bond or as contact. Lest the flip of a coin decides if we should or should not draw a bond in a polyiodide, statistical insights based on CSD surveys were used to put in perspective literature material and work out a meaningful assignment (as I₈^2-). In doing so, we address how currently accepted threshold distance values came to be in the first place, their significance, soundness, and shortcomings in describing I₈^2- and its formal fragments (I₂, I₃^-, I₅^-). Discussion of the chemical meaning of the line representing bonding in I-I fragments in similar fringe cases, relating CSD data herein presented with the previous literature, is provided. Available information coincides quite well in supporting the necessity of a revision of broadly accepted threshold distance values.

Tuning of Ionic Liquid Crystal Properties by Combining Halogen Bonding and Fluorous Effect

We report halogen-bonded complexes between 1-polyfluoroalkyl-3-alkylimidazolium iodides and mono-iodoperfluoroalkanes of different chain lengths or di-iodoperfluorooctane. ¹⁹ F NMR analyses revealed that the preferred stoichiometry between the donors and acceptors is 1 : 1 in the cases of the mono-iodoperfluoroalkanes, and 2 : 1 with di-iodoperfluorooctane, as a result of the monodentate behavior of the iodide anion (halogen bond acceptor). Single crystal X-ray diffraction analyses showed the presence of a perfluorinated superanion, which interdigitates with the cation fluorinated chains, favoring the formation of lamellar structures. All of the obtained supramolecular complexes exhibit enantiotropic liquid crystalline phases over a broad range of temperatures. Most of the obtained complexes show melting points lower than 100 °C, two of them being liquid at room temperature, thus representing a new family of fluorinated ionic liquid crystals.

Peculiar High-Pressure Phase Behavior of 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium Iodide

We investigated the stability of the liquid phase of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide (hereafter abbreviated as [C₄mim][I]) up to 16.7 GPa at room temperature. We observed a peculiar phase transition behavior in the [C₄mim][I] sample. In particular, a glassy state was formed at ∼1.3 GPa; however, the reddish-brown precipitate was formed probably due to concentrated I₃^- or I₂^- species that were formed above 12 GPa; [C₄mim][I] showed a pressure-induced partial crystallization from the glassy state. We concluded that the conformation of [C₄mim]⁺ is essential in iterative modulation to control the environmental formation of iodide precipitate.

Direct Dynamic Evidence of Charge Separation in a Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Obtained under Operando Conditions by Raman Spectroscopy

Interfaces play an important role in enhancing the energy conversion performance of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs). The interface effects have been studied by many techniques, but most of the studies only focused on one part of a DSC, rather than on a complete solar cell. Hence, monitoring the interface evolution of a DSC is still very challenging. Here, in situ/operando resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopic analyses were carried out to monitor the dynamics of the photovoltaic conversion processes in a DSC. We observed the creation of new species (i.e., polyiodide and iodine aggregates) in the photosensitization process. We also obtained molecular-scale dynamic evidence that the bands from the C=C and C=N bonds of 2,2'-bipyridyl (bpy), the S=C=N bonds of the NCS ligand, and photochemical products undergo reasonably strong intensity and frequency changes, which clearly demonstrates that they are involved in charge separation. Furthermore, RR spectroscopy can also be used to quickly evaluate the performance of DSCs.

Lithium-triggered spontaneous formation of polyiodides in room-temperature ionic liquid-alcohol solutions

In this study, the effect of alcohol on polyiodide formation in room-temperature ionic liquid (RTIL) was examined by time evolutions of Raman spectra in the low-frequency region and by color changes of the sample. The RTIL was 1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium iodide, [C₃mim][I]. Polyiodides develop in [C₃mim][I]‑lithium salt-ethanol solutions (Abe et al., Chem. Phys. 502 (2018) 72.). Without the external addition of iodine or without an external electric field, the irreversible transformation from I^- to I₃^- indicates that charge unbalancing was promoted by lithium ion. Polyiodide formations were not induced by sodium or potassium ions. Strong alcohol effects were observed directly by the time-dependent Raman bands in the low-frequency region.

Optical absorption and photoconductivity in iodine-excess ionic liquids: the case of 1-alkyl-3-methyl imidazolium iodides

We investigated the optical absorption and photoconductivity of iodine-excess ionic liquids (ILs) based on 1-alkyl-3-methyl imidazolium iodide ([C_nmim][I]; n = 3, 4, and 6).

Grotthuss Transport of Iodide in EMIM/I3 Ionic Crystal

Highly ionic environments can mediate unusual chemical reactions that would otherwise be considered impossible based on chemical intuition. For example, the formation of a chemical bond between two iodide anions to form a divalent polyiodide anion is seemingly prohibited due to Coulombic repulsion. Using ab initio molecular dynamics simulations, we show that in the 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium (EMIM)/I₃ ionic crystal, the reactive formation of divalent and even trivalent polyiodide anions occurs with extremely small energetic barriers, due to the electrostatic field of the ionic lattice. A practical consequence of this anomalous reactivity is that iodide anions are efficiently transported within the crystal through a "Grotthuss-exchange" mechanism involving bond-breaking and forming events. We characterize two distinct transport pathways, involving both I₄^2- and I₇^3- intermediates, with fast transport of iodide resulting from the release of an I^- anion on the opposite side of the intermediate species from the initial bond formation. The ordered cation arrangement in the crystal provides the necessary electrostatic screening for close approach of anions, suggesting a new counterintuitive approach to obtain high ionic conductivity. This new design principle could be used to develop better solid-state electrolytes for batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors.

Gel Electrolytes with Polyamidopyridine Dendron Modified Talc for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Organic-inorganic hybrid layered materials are proposed as additives in a quasi-solid gel electrolyte for dye-sensitized solar cells. Talcs could provide a low-cost and environmentally friendly, as well as abundant, option as gelators. Here, talcs were prepared by functionalizing an organotalc with three polyamidopyridine dendron generations, PAMPy-talc-Gn (n = 1, 2 and 3). PAMPy dendrons grow parallel to the lamellae plane and form an organized structure by intermolecular interactions. In addition, polyiodide-dendron charge-transfer complexes were prepared onto the organotalc by adsorption of iodine. In this work, the effect of the dendron generation of PAMPy-talc and the influence of polyiodide intercalation on solar cell performance and stability were investigated. The best results were reached with the use of lowest-generation PAMPy-talc (η = 4.5 ± 0.3%, V_OC = 710 ± 19 mV, J_sc = 10.4 ± 0.9 mA cm^-2, and FF = 61 ± 2%): 15% higher efficiency compared to similar liquid devices. While some previously studied talcs illustrate very strong absorption of the iodide from the electrolyte, in the case of PAMPy-talc such interfering effects were absent: In a 1000 h light soaking test, the PAMPy-talc cells both with and without polyiodide intercalation demonstrated stable performances. Furthermore, the color analysis of the electrolyte indicated that the color of the electrolyte remained stable after an initial period of stabilization, which is a good indication of the compound being stable and not absorbing charge carriers from the electrolyte. The performance and stability results indicate that PAMPy-talc has potential as a gelling method for electrolytes for dye solar cells.

POSS-Based Electrolyte for Efficient Solid-State Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells at Sub-Zero Temperatures

To expand the application of solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells (ssDSSCs) to low temperatures, it is necessary to develop new solid electrolytes with low glass transition temperature (Tg). The Tg is regulated by varying the length of alkyl chain that is connected with the nitrogen atom in the imidazolium ring linked to the polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS). The Tg as low as -8.8 °C is achieved with the POSS grafted with methyl-substituted imidazolium. The effect of alkyl group on the conductivity, Tg, and photovoltaic performance has also been investigated. The conductivity and power conversion efficiency increase with the alkyl length, while the Tg first increases and then decreases with the alkyl length. Among the synthesized POSS-based ionic conductors, the POSS grafted with the methyl-substituted imidazolium yields the highest power conversion efficiency of 6.98% at RT due to its highest conductivity, and the efficiency (6.52%) is still good at -4 °C, as its Tg (-8.8 °C) is lower than the working temperature (-4 °C). This finding suggests that the POSS-based solid electrolyte is promising for subzero-temperature applications of ssDSSCs.

Polyiodides in room-temperature ionic liquids

Polyiodides, I_m⁻, were formed in room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs).

Influence of Elemental Iodine on Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids: Solution and Solid-State Effects

Ionic liquids doped with I2, usually resulting in the formation of polyiodide anions, are extensively used as electrolytes and in iodination reactions. Herein, NMR spectroscopy and single-crystal X-ray diffraction were used to rationalize the structures of imidazolium-based polyiodide ionic liquids in the liquid and solid states. Combined, these studies show that extensive interactions between the imidazolium cation and the resulting polyiodide anion are present, which have the net effect of lengthening, polarizing, and weakening the I-I bonds in the anion. This bond weakening rationalizes the high conductivity and reactivity of ionic liquids doped with I2.

Pressure-enhanced surface interactions between nano-TiO2 and ionic liquid mixtures probed by high pressure IR spectroscopy

The formation of pressure-enhanced C–H⋯nano-TiO₂ interactions around the C–H groups was observed.

Raman spectroscopy study of new thia- and oxazinoquinolinium triodides

New polyiodides of thia- and oxa-zinoquinolinium derivatives were characterized using Raman spectroscopy and periodic 3D calculations of the Raman intensities. Polarized Raman spectra of the oriented crystals revealed the features of spatial organization in the polyiodide-anion chains.

Very short NMR relaxation times of anions in ionic liquids: new pulse sequence to eliminate the acoustic ringing

NMR relaxation processes of anions were studied in two neat imidazolium-based room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) 1-decyl-3-methyl-imidazolium bromide- and chloride. The spin-lattice and spin-spin relaxations of 81Br and 35Cl nuclei were found to be extremely fast due to very strong quadrupolar interactions. The determined relaxation rates are comparable with those observed in the solids or in some critical organic solute/water/salt systems. In order to eliminate the acoustic ringing of the probe-head during relaxation times measurements the novel pulse sequence has been devised. It is based on the conventional inversion recovery pulse sequence, however, instead of the last 90° pulse the subsequence of three 90° pulses applied along axes to fulfill the phase cycling condition is used. Using this pulse sequence it was possible to measure T1 for both studied nuclei. The viscosity measurements have been carried out and the rotational correlation times were calculated. The effective 35Cl quadrupolar coupling constant was found to be almost one order lower than that for 81Br, i.e. 1.8 MHz and 16.0 MHz, respectively. Taking into account the facts that the ratio of (Q(35Cl)/Q(81Br))2≈0.1 and EFG tensors on the anions are quite similar, analogous structural organizations are expected for both RTILs. The observed T1/T2 (1.27-1.44) ratios were found to be not sufficiently high to confirm the presence of long-living (on the time scale of ≥10(-8) s) mesoscopic structures or heterogeneities in the studied neat ionic liquids.

Synthesis of POSS-based ionic conductors with low glass transition temperatures for efficient solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells

Replacing liquid-state electrolytes with solid-state electrolytes has been proven to be an effective way to improve the durability of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). We report herein the synthesis of amorphous ionic conductors based on polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) with low glass transition temperatures for solid-state DSSCs. As the ionic conductor is amorphous and in the elastomeric state at the operating temperature of DSSCs, good pore filling in the TiO2 film and good interfacial contact between the solid-state electrolyte and the TiO2 film can be guaranteed. When the POSS-based ionic conductor containing an allyl group is doped with only iodine as the solid-state electrolyte without any other additives, power conversion efficiency of 6.29% has been achieved with good long-term stability under one-sun soaking for 1000 h.

Ionic conductor with high conductivity as single-component electrolyte for efficient solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells

Imidazolium iodide is an often used component in iodine-based dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), but it cannot operate an efficient DSSC in the absence of iodine due to its low conductivity. For this study, lamellar solid iodide salts of imidazolium or piperidinium with an N-substituted propargyl group have been prepared and applied in solid-state DSSCs. Owing to the high conductivity arising from the lamellar structure, these solid-state ionic conductors can be used as single-component solid electrolytes to operate solid-state DSSCs efficiently without any additives in the electrolyte and post-treatments on the dye-loaded TiO2 films. With a propargyl group attached to the imidazolium ring, the conductivity is enhanced by about 4 × 10(4)-fold as compared to the alkyl-substituted imidazolium iodide. Solid-state DSSC with the 1-propargyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide as the single-component solid-state electrolyte has achieved a light-to-electricity power conversion efficiency of 6.3% under illumination of simulated AM1.5G solar light (100 mW cm(-2)), which also exhibits good long-term stability under continuous 1 sun soaking for 1500 h. This finding paves the way for development of high-conductivity single-component solid electrolytes for use in efficient solid-state DSSCs.

Determination of hydrogen-bond-accepting and -donating abilities of ionic liquids with halogeno complex anions by means of 1H NMR spectroscopy

Hydrogen-bond-accepting (HBA) and -donating (HBD) parameters of ionic liquids (ILs) with halogeno complex anions are determined by means of (1)H NMR spectroscopy. Thereby, the imidazolium cation serves both as part of the IL and as (1)H NMR probe. The HBA and HBD strength are calculated in terms of the empirical polarity parameters β and α according to the Kamlet-Taft equation. The study includes 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium ILs with chloroaluminates of various mole fractions from 0 to 0.67 of AlCl(3), anions of the general chemical formula MtX(n)(-) (Mt=metal, X=halide) as well as tri- and pentaiodide. The (1)H NMR chemical shift of the hydrogen atom in the two position of the imidazolium cation is a function of the HBA ability of the corresponding anion. For the chloroaluminates the HBA ability decreases and the HBD ability increases with increasing mole fraction of the Lewis acid. In general, the HBA strength of the studied ILs increases in the following order: MoCl(6)(-) < Al(2)Cl(7)(-) < AlCl(4)(-) < WCl(7)(-) < I(5)(-) < SnCl(5)(-) < I(3)(-) < SbCl(6)(-) < TiCl(5)(-) < BBr(4)(-) < SnCl(3)(-). The corresponding HBD ability shows a reverse trend.