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Serna C, Sandepudi K, Keate RL, Zhang SL, Cotton KY, De La Isla A, Murillo M, Bouricha Y, Domenighetti AA, Franz CK, Jordan SW. Incorporation of decellularized-ECM in graphene-based scaffolds enhances axonal outgrowth and branching in neuro-muscular co-cultures. Sci Prog 2024; 107:368504241281469. [PMID: 39314156 PMCID: PMC11423365 DOI: 10.1177/00368504241281469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/25/2024]
Abstract
Peripheral nerve and large-scale muscle injuries result in significant disability, necessitating the development of biomaterials that can restore functional deficits by promoting tissue regrowth in an electroactive environment. Among these materials, graphene is favored for its high conductivity, but its low bioactivity requires enhancement through biomimetic components. In this study, we extrusion printed graphene-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (graphene) lattice scaffolds, aiming to increase bioactivity by incorporating decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) derived from mouse pup skeletal muscle. We first evaluated these scaffolds using human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived motor neurons co-cultured with supportive glia, observing significant improvements in axon outgrowth. Next, we tested the scaffolds with C2C12 mouse and human primary myoblasts, finding no significant differences in myotube formation between dECM-graphene and graphene scaffolds. Finally, using a more complex hiPSC-derived 3D motor neuron spheroid model co-cultured with human myoblasts, we demonstrated that dECM-graphene scaffolds significantly improved axonal expansion towards peripheral myoblasts and increased axonal network density compared to graphene-only scaffolds. Features of early neuromuscular junction formation were identified near neuromuscular interfaces in both scaffold types. These findings suggest that dECM-graphene scaffolds are promising candidates for enhancing neuromuscular regeneration, offering robust support for the growth and development of diverse neuromuscular tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Serna
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kirtana Sandepudi
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Rebecca L Keate
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
- Center for Advanced Regenerative Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Sophia L Zhang
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kristen Y Cotton
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Ken & Ruth Dave Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Kimberly K. Querrey and Louis A. Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Simpson Querrey Biomedical Research Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Alberto De La Isla
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Matias Murillo
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Ken & Ruth Dave Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Kimberly K. Querrey and Louis A. Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Simpson Querrey Biomedical Research Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Yasmine Bouricha
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Ken & Ruth Dave Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Kimberly K. Querrey and Louis A. Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Simpson Querrey Biomedical Research Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Andrea A Domenighetti
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Colin K Franz
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Ken & Ruth Dave Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Kimberly K. Querrey and Louis A. Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Simpson Querrey Biomedical Research Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sumanas W Jordan
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Biologics Laboratory, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
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Yu Z, Wang Y, Cai M, Chen J, Zou Q, Fan Q, Zhang L. Plasmonic nanoprobes on single AuNTs for evaluating and monitoring the dynamic release of 2D drug carriers. J Mater Chem B 2023; 11:11164-11172. [PMID: 37982293 DOI: 10.1039/d3tb02255b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
The use of nanomaterials in drug delivery has gained significant attention in recent years. In this project, we developed a novel localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) nanoprobe on single gold triangular nanoplates (AuNTs) for dynamic monitoring of the drug carrier release process. Graphene, as the drug carrier, could be immobilized on the AuNT surface through the π-π* stacking effect. Upon loading or releasing the model drug (doxorubicin, DOX), subtle changes in the local microenvironment's dielectric constant around the AuNTs induced notable red-shifts or blue-shifts in the LSPR scattering spectra of single AuNTs. Furthermore, the spectral shifts led to a continuous enhancement in the red channel of the dark field microscopy (DFM) images during the drug release process in vitro, demonstrating that the drug release system is not susceptible to potential confounding factors. These release kinetics results under different conditions could be well-fitted using the Higuchi desorption model, further proving that this nanoprobe could be employed for evaluating the controlled release ability of 2D nanocarriers. These findings are expected to inspire new ideas and technologies in the preparation of more effective drug carriers, making a significant contribution to the development of drug delivery nanosystems and nanomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zejie Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Yi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Miaomiao Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Jiachang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Qirong Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Quli Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Lei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China.
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Electrode Kinetics of Ion Jelly and Ion Sol-Gel Redox Materials on Screen-Printed Electrodes. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12042087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Several hydrogel materials have been proposed for drug delivery systems and other purposes as interfacial materials, such as components for fuel cells and immobilization of biomolecules. In the present work, two materials, an ion sol-gel, based on 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, and an ion jelly (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ethylsulfate) film deposited on carbon screen-printed electrodes, were electrochemically characterized. The electrode kinetics of ion jelly and ion sol-gel materials were compared by using ferrocyanide/ferricyanide redox reaction couple as a model redox process. Diffusion coefficients were calculated and compared to those obtained with the model redox couple in non-modified electrodes. Results pointed to a decrease of two and four orders of magnitude in the diffusion coefficients, respectively, for ion jelly and ion sol-gel film modified electrodes. Heterogeneous electron transfer constants for the ferrocyanide/ferricyanide ion redox process were also determined for modified and non-modified electrodes, in which the ion sol-gel film modified electrode presented the lower values. This work sought to contribute to the understanding of these materials’ properties, with emphasis on their diffusion, conductivity, and electrochemical behavior, namely reversibility, transfer coefficients, and kinetics, and optimize the most suitable properties for different possible applications, such as drug delivery.
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A Collagen-Conducting Polymer Composite with Enhanced Chondrogenic Potential. Cell Mol Bioeng 2021; 14:501-512. [PMID: 34777607 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-021-00702-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Conducting polymers (CPs) have demonstrated promise for promoting tissue repair, yet their ability to facilitate cartilage regeneration has yet to be thoroughly investigated. Integrating CPs into common scaffolds for tissue regeneration, such as collagen, would enable mechanistic studies on the potential for CPs to promote cartilage repair. Here, we combine absorbable collagen sponges (ACS) with the CP PEDOT-S and show that the PEDOT-S-collagen composite (PEDOT-ACS) has enhanced chondrogenic potential compared to the collagen sponge alone. Methods PEDOT-S was incorporated through a simple incubation process. Changes to scaffold topography, elastic modulus, swelling ratio, and surface charge were measured to analyze how PEDOT-S affected the material properties of the scaffold. Changes in rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (rBMSC) functionality were assessed with cell viability and glycosaminoglycan production assays. Results Macrostructure and microstructure of the scaffold remained largely unaffected by PEDOT-S modification, as observed through SEM images and quantification of scaffold porosity. Zeta potential, swelling ratio, and dry elastic modulus of the collagen scaffold were significantly changed by the incorporation of PEDOT-S. Seeding cells on PEDOT-ACS improved cell viability and enhanced glycosaminoglycan production. Conclusion We demonstrate a practical approach to generate PEDOT-S composites with comparable physical properties to pristine collagen scaffolds. We show that PEDOT-ACS can influence cell functionality and serve as a promising model system for mechanistic investigations on the roles of bioelectronic signaling in the repair of cartilage and other tissue types.
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Synthesis, characterization and electropolymerization of functionalized organic salt–anilinium saccharinate and electrochemically controlled release of saccharinate anions. Electrochim Acta 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2019.135142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Electric field-responsive nanoparticles and electric fields: physical, chemical, biological mechanisms and therapeutic prospects. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2019; 138:56-67. [PMID: 30414494 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2018.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Electric fields are among physical stimuli that have revolutionized therapy. Occurring endogenously or exogenously, the electric field can be used as a trigger for controlled drug release from electroresponsive drug delivery systems, can stimulate wound healing and cell proliferation, may enhance endocytosis or guide stem cell differentiation. Electric field pulses may be applied to induce cell fusion, can increase the penetration of therapeutic agents into cells, or can be applied as a standalone therapy to ablate tumors. This review describes the main therapeutic trends and overviews the main physical, chemical and biological mechanisms underlying the actions of electric fields. Overall, the electric field can be used in therapeutic approaches in several ways. The electric field can act on drug carriers, cells and tissues. Understanding the multiple effects of this powerful tool will help harnessing its full therapeutic potential in an efficient and safe way.
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De Schutter G, Lesage K. Active control of properties of concrete: a (p)review. MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES 2018; 51:123. [PMID: 30393457 PMCID: PMC6191022 DOI: 10.1617/s11527-018-1256-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Concrete properties to a large extent depend on mix design and processing, currently leaving only limited options to actively modify concrete properties during or after casting. This paper gives a (p)review on a more advanced active control of properties of concrete, based on the application of external signals to trigger an intended response in the material, either in fresh or hardened state. Current practices in concrete industry that could be considered as active control are briefly summarized. More advanced active control mechanisms as studied in other fields, e.g. based on hydrogels and other functional polymers, are reviewed and some principles are listed. A specific focus is further given on potential methods for active rheology control. Based on the concepts developed in other fields, substantial progress could be made in order to achieve active control of fresh and hardened concrete properties. However, several challenges remain, like the stability and functioning of the responsive material in a cementitious environment, the applicability of the control signal in a cementitious material, and the economy, logistics and safety of a control system on a construction site or in precast industry. Finding solutions to these challenges will lead to marvelous opportunities in general, and for 3D and even 4D printing more particularly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geert De Schutter
- Magnel Laboratory for Concrete Research, Department of Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Karel Lesage
- Magnel Laboratory for Concrete Research, Department of Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Positively-charged hierarchical PEDOT interface with enhanced electrode kinetics for NADH-based biosensors. Biosens Bioelectron 2018; 120:115-121. [PMID: 30173009 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2018.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) has attracted considerable attention as an advanced electrode material for electrochemical sensors and biosensors, due to its unique electrical and physicochemical properties. Here, we demonstrate the facile preparation of a positively-charged and hierarchical micro-structured PEDOT electrochemical interface with enhanced electrode kinetics for the electrooxidation of NADH. Processable PEDOT colloidal microparticles (PEDOT CMs) were synthesised by template-assisted polymerisation and were then utilised as building blocks for the fabrication of hierarchically-structured electrodes with a larger accessible electroactive surface (2.8 times larger than that of the benchmark PEDOT:PSS) and inter-particle space, thus improving electrode kinetics. The intrinsic positive charge of the PEDOT CMs further facilitated the detection of negatively-charged molecules by electrostatic accumulation. Due to the synergistic effect, these hierarchically-structured PEDOT CMs electrodes exhibited improved NADH electrooxidation at lower potentials and enhanced electrocatalytic activity compared to the compact structure of conventional PEDOT:PSS electrodes. The PEDOT CMs electrodes detected NADH over the range of 20-240 μM, with a sensitivity of 0.0156 μA/μM and a limit of detection of 5.3 μM. Moreover, the PEDOT CMs electrode exhibited a larger peak separation from the interferent ascorbic acid, and improved stability. This enhanced analytical performance for NADH provides a sound basis for further work coupling to a range of NAD-dependent dehydrogenases for applications in biosensing, bio-fuel cells and biocatalysis.
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Cheung KY, Lai KK, Mak WC. Fabrication of Protein Microparticles and Microcapsules with Biomolecular Tools. Z PHYS CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1515/zpch-2017-1052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Microparticles have attracted much attention for medical, analytical and biological applications. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) templating method with the advantages of having narrow size distribution, controlled morphology and good biocompatibility that has been widely used for the synthesis of various protein-based microparticles. Despite CaCO3 template is biocompatible, most of the conventional methods to create stable protein microparticles are mainly driven by chemical crosslink reagents which may induce potential harmful effect and remains undesirable especially for biomedical or clinical applications. In this article, we demonstrate the fabrication of protein microparticles and microcapsules with an innovative method using biomolecular tools such as enzymes and affinity molecules to trigger the assembling of protein molecules within a porous CaCO3 template followed by a template removal step. We demonstrated the enzyme-assisted fabrication of collagen microparticles triggered by transglutaminase, as well as the affinity-assisted fabrication of BSA-biotin avidin microcapsules triggered by biotin-avidin affinity interaction, respectively. Based on the different protein assemble mechanisms, the collagen microparticles appeared as a solid-structured particles, while the BSA-biotin avidin microcapsules appeared as hollow-structured morphology. The fabrication procedures are simple and robust that allows producing protein microparticles or microcapsules under mild conditions at physiological pH and temperature. In addition, the microparticle morphologies, protein compositions and the assemble mechanisms were studied. Our technology provides a facile approach to design and fabricate protein microparticles and microcapsules that are useful in the area of biomaterials, pharmaceuticals and analytical chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwan Yee Cheung
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine , Linköping University , SE 58185 Linköping , Sweden
| | - Kwok Kei Lai
- Department of Chemistry , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay , Hong Kong , P.R. China
| | - Wing Cheung Mak
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine , Linköping University , SE 58185 Linköping , Sweden
- Biosensors and Bioelectronics Centre , Department of Physics , Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University , SE 58183 Linköping , Sweden
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Tandon B, Magaz A, Balint R, Blaker JJ, Cartmell SH. Electroactive biomaterials: Vehicles for controlled delivery of therapeutic agents for drug delivery and tissue regeneration. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2018; 129:148-168. [PMID: 29262296 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2017.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Electrical stimulation for delivery of biochemical agents such as genes, proteins and RNA molecules amongst others, holds great potential for controlled therapeutic delivery and in promoting tissue regeneration. Electroactive biomaterials have the capability of delivering these agents in a localized, controlled, responsive and efficient manner. These systems have also been combined for the delivery of both physical and biochemical cues and can be programmed to achieve enhanced effects on healing by establishing control over the microenvironment. This review focuses on current state-of-the-art research in electroactive-based materials towards the delivery of drugs and other therapeutic signalling agents for wound care treatment. Future directions and current challenges for developing effective electroactive approach based therapies for wound care are discussed.
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Bansal M, Sharma M, Bullen C, Svirskis D. Free standing PEDOT films prepared by vapour phase polymerisation as electrically tuneable barriers to drug permeability. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2017.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Wannapob R, Vagin MY, Liu Y, Thavarungkul P, Kanatharana P, Turner APF, Mak WC. Printable Heterostructured Bioelectronic Interfaces with Enhanced Electrode Reaction Kinetics by Intermicroparticle Network. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:33368-33376. [PMID: 28846378 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b12559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Printable organic bioelectronics provide a fast and cost-effective approach for the fabrication of novel biodevices, while the general challenge is to achieve optimized reaction kinetics at multiphase boundaries between biomolecules and electrodes. Here, we present an entirely new concept based on a modular approach for the construction of heterostructured bioelectronic interfaces by using tailored functional "biological microparticles" combined with "transducer microparticles" as modular building blocks. This approach offers high versatility for the design and fabrication of bioelectrodes with a variety of forms of interparticle spatial organization, from layered-structures to more advance bulk heterostructured architectures. The heterostructured biocatalytic electrodes delivered twice the reaction rate and a six-fold increase in the effective diffusion kinetics in response to a catalytic model using glucose as the substrate, together with the advantage of shortened diffusion paths for reactants between multiple interparticle junctions and large active particle surface. The consequent benefits of this improved performance combined with the simple means of mass production are of major significance for the emerging printed electronics industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodtichoti Wannapob
- Biosensors and Bioelectronics Centre, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University , SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Mikhail Yu Vagin
- Biosensors and Bioelectronics Centre, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University , SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University , 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Yu Liu
- Biosensors and Bioelectronics Centre, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University , SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
- College of Life and Science, Sichuan Agricultural University , Yaan 625014, People's Republic of China
| | | | | | - Anthony P F Turner
- Biosensors and Bioelectronics Centre, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University , SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Wing Cheung Mak
- Biosensors and Bioelectronics Centre, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University , SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
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