Impacts of in vivo and in vitro exposures to tamoxifen: Comparative effects on human cells and marine organisms

Acute and Sublethal Effects of Deltamethrin Discharges from the Aquaculture Industry on Northern Shrimp (Pandalus borealis Krøyer, 1838): Dispersal Modeling and Field Investigations

Pharmaceutical deltamethrin (Alpha Max), used as delousing treatments in aquaculture, has raised concerns due to possible negative impacts on the marine environment. A novel approach combining different scientific disciplines has addressed this topic. Acute (mortality) and sublethal effects (i.e., fitness, neurological, immunological, and oxidative responses) of exposure of northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis) were studied in laboratory experiments. Passive water sampling combined with sediment analyses revealed environmental concentrations. Finally, dispersal modeling was performed to predict environmental concentrations. Ecotoxicological analyses showed mortality in shrimp after 1 h of exposure to 2 ng L^-1 (1000-fold dilution of treatment dose), revealing a high sensitivity to deltamethrin. Sublethal effects included induction of acetylcholinesterase and acyl CoA oxidase activities and oxidative impairment, which may be linked to neurotoxic responses. Field concentrations of 10-200 ng L^-1 in water (100 m from the pens) and <LOD-0.19 ng g^-1 dw in sediment (0-400 m from pens) were measured. Ecotoxicological values were compared with measured and modeled concentrations. They showed that concentrations higher than those causing mortality could be expected up to 4-5 km from point of release, in an area of 6.4 km², with lethal concentrations remaining up to 35 h in some areas. Hence, the study demonstrates that there is a considerable risk for negative effects on the ecologically and commercially important shrimp.

Herbal Honey Preparations of Curcuma Xanthorriza and Black Cumin Protect against Carcinogenesis through Antioxidant and Immunomodulatory Activities in Sprague Dawley (SD) Rats Induced with Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene

BACKGROUND

Traditionally, Curcuma xanthorriza (CX), black cumin seed (BC), and honey have been used by the Indonesian people as medicinal ingredients to treat various health symptoms. CX extracts and BC have been proven in the laboratory as chemopreventive agents, antioxidants, and immunomodulators. In this study, we developed CX extract, BC oil, and honey into herbal honey preparations (CXBCH) and hypothesized that the preparations show chemopreventive activity. The purpose of the study was to determine the CXBCH potential as chemopreventive, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory.

METHOD

In this experimental laboratory research, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and cytotoxic activities were tested on human mammary cancer cell lines (T47D cells) while the chemopreventive activity of the CXBCH preparations on Sprague Dawley (SD) rats induced with dimethylbenzene(a)anthracene (DMBA).

RESULTS

CXBCH preparations demonstrated immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and cytotoxic activities in T47D, Hela, and HTB-183 cells and in DMBA-induced SD rats, as the preparations inhibited tumor nodule formation, increased the number of CD4, CD8 and CD4CD25 cells, and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity, and decreased serum NO levels.

CONCLUSIONS

CXBCH preparations display chemopreventive, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties.

Health effects and risks associated with the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood

Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are continuously invading the marine environment due to their input from the land such as their disposal into the drains and sewers which is mostly followed by their transfer into wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Their incomplete removal in WWTPs introduces pharmaceuticals into oceans and surface water. To date, various pharmaceuticals and their metabolites have been detected in marine environment. Their occurrence in marine organisms raises concerns regarding toxic effects and development of drug resistant genes. Therefore, it is crucial to review the health effects and risks associated with the presence of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood. This is an important study area which is related to the availability of seafood and its quality. Hence, this study provides a critical review of the information available in literature which relates to the occurrence and toxic effects of pharmaceuticals in marine organisms and seafood. This was initiated through conducting a literature search focussing on articles investigating the occurrence and effects of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood. In general, most studies on the monitoring of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine environment are conducted in well developed countries such as Europe while research in developing countries is still limited. Pharmaceuticals present in freshwater are mostly found in seawater and marine organisms. Furthermore, the toxicity caused by different pharmaceutical mixtures was observed to be more severe than that of individual compounds.

Environmental Hazard of Anticancer Drugs: State of the Art and Future Perspective for Marine Organisms

Pharmaceutical compounds represent a class of emerging contaminants present in the environment. Their intense (and increasing) use in human and veterinary medicine leads to their discharge, mainly via human excretion, into wastewater treatment plants where their removal is inefficient. A specific class of pharmaceuticals used to fight cancer, known as antineoplastic or anticancer drugs, has gained increased attention regarding their possible environmental hazard due to their pharmacological properties, which include the nonselective targeting of DNA replication mechanisms and cell division processes, potentially inducing cell apoptosis. To date, there is limited information concerning the effects of anticancer drugs and/or their metabolites in species inhabiting freshwater environments, let alone marine and estuarine compartments. In the present review, we aimed to assemble information regarding the impact that anticancer drugs have on biological traits of marine species, to identify gaps in the current environmental hazard assessment, and to make recommendations to promote an efficient environmental hazard assessment of anticancer drugs in the marine environment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1793-1807. © 2022 SETAC.

Comparison of the toxic effects of non-task-specific and task-specific ionic liquids on zebrafish

Ionic liquids (ILs) are composed of only anions and cations and are liquid solvents at room temperature. Different functional groups were introduced into the ILs, conferring them with specific functions or purposes and thus forming special ILs, namely task-specific ILs (TSILs). Imidazolium-based ILs are the most widely used ILs in industrial production. To date, there have been some studies on the toxic effects of ILs on different organisms. However, the effect of functionalized groups on the toxicity of ILs is still unclear. In the present study, zebrafish were used as model organisms to study the toxic effects of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium nitrate ([C₂mim]NO₃) and 1-hydroxyethyl-3-methylimidazolium nitrate ([HOC₂mim]NO₃). The results showed that both promoted an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) contents, leading to lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Furthermore, integrated biological response analysis showed that [HOC₂mim]NO₃ was less toxic to zebrafish than [C₂mim]NO₃, which indicated that adding functional groups decreased the toxicity of ILs to organisms. The influence of chemical structure on IL toxicity was also reported. These results could provide a scientific basis for better synthesis and utilization of ILs in the future.

Aquatic ecotoxicology of anticancer drugs: A systematic review

Anticancer drugs in the aquatic environment have drawn a lot of attention in the last decade. Since wastewater treatment plants are inefficient at fully eliminating trace concentrations of anticancer drugs, these compounds are continuously discharged into the aquatic environment. Subsequently, non-target organisms such as the aquatic biota are directly exposed to a variety of anticancer drugs. To understand the potential impact on the aquatic organisms, a systematic review was conducted in compliance with the PRISMA guidelines. The results acquired from the 152 included studies were analysed and sorted into four categories: the impact of each included anticancer drug, the effect of metabolites, the effect of a mixture of drugs, and risk assessment. Findings showed that risk to the aquatic biota was unlikely to occur as the concentrations needed to induce effects were much higher than those detected in the environment. However, these data were based on acute toxicity and included only basic toxicity endpoints. The concentrations that produced significant effects were much lower when tested in the long-term or in multi-generational studies. Heterogeneity in results was also observed; this depended on the organism tested, the assessment adopted, and the endpoints selected. In this systematic review, an overall view of the research studies was generated by which all the variability factors to be considered were reported and recommendations to guide future studies were proposed.

Long-term exposure of marine mussels to paracetamol: is time a healer or a killer?

Pharmaceuticals pose a major threat to the marine environment, and several studies have recently described their negative effects on marine organisms. Pharmaceutical compounds are constantly being released into aquatic ecosystems, and chronic exposure, even at low concentrations, may have a major impact on marine organisms. The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the biological changes induced by one of the most widely used pharmaceuticals-paracetamol-in the blue mussel Mytilus edulis, after a long-term exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations. We present our data alongside and in comparison with results from a previous short-term exposure, to demonstrate the significance of exposure period on the effects of paracetamol in adult blue mussels. After 24 days of laboratory exposure, seven potential target genes were selected to examine toxicological effects in mussels' gonads and possible disruptive effects on reproductive processes. The results show the modulation of some important reproduction-related genes: estrogen receptor-2 (ER2), vitelline envelope zona pellucida domain-9 (V9), and vitellogenin (VTG). Variations in mRNA expression of four other genes involved in apoptosis (HSP70, CASP8, BCL2, and FAS) are also highlighted. Histopathological alterations caused by paracetamol, together with neutral red retention time response in mussels' hemocytes, are presented herein. Overall, this study highlights the exacerbated effects of low concentration of paracetamol after chronic exposure, similar to the damage induced by higher concentrations in a short exposure scenario, thus emphasizing the importance of length of exposure period when studying the effects of this substance. Additionally, this study also discusses the potential of paracetamol to inflict several major changes in the reproductive system of mussels and thus possibly affect the survival of populations.

Cytotoxic responses of the anticancer drug cyclophosphamide in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis and comparative sensitivity with human cells lines

The rise of cancer cases worldwide led to an increase in production and consumption of anticancer drugs, that ultimately end up in the marine environment and are accumulated in aquatic organisms. Cyclophosphamide (CP) is a cytotoxic alkylating agent frequently prescribed in cancer treatments. This study assess ecotoxicological effects of CP on mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis, through in vivo and ex vivo approaches and compares the sensitivity of mussel haemocytes with well-established human cell lines (RPE and HeLa). Mussels were exposed in vivo to CP (1000 ng L^-1) and several biomarkers analysed in gills and digestive glands namely neurotoxicity (AChE activity), oxidative stress (GPx activity), biotransformation (GST activity), lipid peroxidation (LPO) and apoptosis (caspase activity), whereas genotoxicity was determined in mussels' haemocytes. Cytotoxicity was also assessed in haemocytes (in vivo and ex vivo) and human cell lines (in vitro) exposed to a range of CP concentrations (50, 100, 250, 500 and 1000 ng L^-1) over 24 h, via neutral red assay. In in vivo exposure, detoxification of CP did not efficiently occur in the gills while in digestive glands GPx and GST activities were induced, jointly with a decrease in lipid peroxidation, indicating a potential outcome of the protective antioxidant mechanisms, whereas no apoptosis was noted. Moreover, cytotoxicity and DNA damage were detected in haemocytes. The ex vivo exposure haemocytes to CP caused cytotoxicity (from 100 ng L^-1), whereas no effects occurred in human cell lines. This suggests that, at relevant environmental concentrations, CP cause subtle and irreversible impacts on M. galloprovincialis.

Ecotoxicological assessment of chemotherapeutic agents using toxicity tests with embryos of Mellita quinquiesperforata

The consumption of anticancer agents has increased in the recent decades, and these substances may be present in sewage. Consequently, they may reach the environment when sanitation infrastructure is ineffective. This study evaluated the toxicity of three anticancer agents-Tamoxifen (TAM), Cisplatin (CisPt), and Cyclophosphamide (CP)-on the development of embryos of the sand-dollar Mellita quinquiesperforata. Adult individuals were collected in sandy beaches, and gametes were obtained. Freshly-fertilized eggs were exposed to increasing sets of concentrations of each compound, and the effective concentrations needed to cause a 50% effect in the organisms (EC50) were calculated. The three compounds were toxic, and their EC50 values were 16.78 ± 2.42 ng·L^-1 (TAM), 27.20 ± 38.26 ng·L^-1 (CisPt), and 101.82 ± 70.96 ng·L^-1 (CP). There is no information on the environmental levels of these compounds in Brazil, but as they were already detected in ng·L^-1 levels worldwide, it can be expected that these substances pose environmental risks to the marine biota.

The mechanism of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases to mediate apoptosis and immunotoxicity induced by Benzo[a]pyrene on hemocytes of scallop Chlamys farreri in vitro

Benzo [a]pyrene (B [a]P) has received widespread attention for serious pollution in the sea, which may reduce immunity and lead to the outbreak of disease in bivalves. However, the mechanism of immunotoxicity induced by B [a]P in bivalves was still unclear. Previous studies have found that Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) including three classic pathways (ERK, p38 and JNK) play an important role in mediating this process. Thus, in order to explore the mechanism of immunotoxicity induced by B [a]P in scallop Chlamys farreri, hemocytes were treated with PD98059 (ERK inhibitor), SB203580 (p38 inhibitor) and SP600125 (JNK inhibitor) for 1 h and then incubation with B [a]P for 24 h at 1 μg/mL. Indexes including oxidative damage, apoptotic rate, and immune indicators were detected in the present study. The results showed that the increase of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and DNA damage induced by B [a]P was inhibited with PD98059 and SB203580. Besides, lysosomal membrane stability (LMS) damage was promoted by PD98059, while it was opposite when treated with SB203580. Moreover, the ascended apoptosis rate induced by B [a]P was increased significantly after treatment with PD98059, but it was remarkably attenuated by SB203580 and SP600125. However, the opposite pattern was showed in phagocytosis compared with apoptosis rate in all of three inhibitors. In addition, antibacterial activity and bacteriolytic activity were enhanced by SB203580 while inhibited by PD98059. Therefore, these results showed that MAPKs directly or indirectly mediate the decrease of oxidative damage, apoptosis and immune defense ability of C. farreri hemocytes, which suggesting ERK/p38/JNK pathways have different functions in the apoptosis and immunity of C. farreri hemocytes after B [a]P exposure. In conclusion, this study intended to enrich the theoretical basis for immunotoxicology of bivalves exposed to pollutants.

Molecular and biochemical responses of vitellogenin in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to the glyphosate-based herbicide Roundup® Power 2.0

Glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) occur in aquatic ecosystems at concentrations of hundreds of micrograms per liter. As formulation adjuvants are suspected to be endocrine-disrupting chemicals, we assessed the effects of the recent GBH formulation Roundup® Power 2.0 on vitellogenin (VTG) in Mytilus galloprovincialis. Mussels were exposed for 7, 14, and 21 days to two concentrations of the commercial formulation, corresponding to 100 and 1000 μg/L of glyphosate. The expression of the vtg gene in gonads of females and males, as well as the levels of alkali labile phosphates (ALP) in gonads and non-gonadal tissues from the two sexes were measured. No significant alterations were observed in vtg expression values during the exposure. Conversely, a significant reduction in gonadal ALP levels was observed in females exposed for 21 days and in males exposed for 7 days. In addition, ALP levels increased significantly in gonads from males exposed for 21 days to the two concentrations of Roundup®. As for non-gonadal tissues, ALP levels did not change significantly in females, whereas ALP levels decreased significantly in non-gonadal tissues from males exposed for 21 days to the lowest concentration tested. An overall statistically significant difference in ALP levels was found between females and males. Although preliminary, our study suggests that GBH can affect reproduction-related parameters in mussels.

Effects of mixtures of anticancer drugs in the benthic polychaete Nereis diversicolor

The increasing consumption of anticancer drugs through single and/or combinatory chemotherapy worldwide raised concern regarding their toxicity burden in coastal zones. The toxicity of a mixture of three compounds involving the drugs cisplatin (CisPt), cyclophosphamide (CP) and tamoxifen (TAM) was determined on the marine polychaete Nereis diversicolor exposed to an increasing range of their concentrations, respectively: Mix A: 0.1 + 10 + 0.1 ng L^-1; Mix B: 10 + 100 + 10 ng L^-1; Mix C: 100 + 500 + 25 ng L^-1; Mix D: 100 + 1000 + 100 ng L^-1. Different endpoints were assessed, including disturbance in the burrowing behaviour, neurotoxicity (acetylcholinesterase - AChE activity), antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase - SOD; catalase - CAT; selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase - Se-GPx and total glutathione peroxidases T-GPx activities), biotransformation metabolism (glutathione-S-transferases - GST), lipid peroxidation (LPO) and genotoxicity (DNA damage). Biological effects of the mixtures of anticancer compounds on N. diversicolor were compared with previous studies about effects on the same biological model under single-drug exposure conducted with the same molecules. Regarding SOD activity, TAM showed an antagonist effect over CisPt and CP in mixtures C and D. In Mix D, there was a synergistic effect of TAM and CisPt that inhibited CAT activity and an additive interaction of CisPt and CP on the Phase II biotransformation enzyme. Drugs in Mix A also suppressed polychaetes' GST activity, although different from the respective single-drug responses, besides able to induce T-GPx activity, that was not sufficient to avoid oxidative damage and mid-grade DNA damage. Due to the absence of burrowing impairment in Mix A, mechanisms involved in neurotoxicity were other than the one driven by AChE alterations. At the intermediary concentrations (Mix B and C), only LPO occurred. Data from drugs individually may not predict the risks provided by mixtures.