Exposure estimates of phthalates and DINCH from foods and personal care products in comparison with biomonitoring data in 24-hour urine from the Norwegian EuroMix biomonitoring study

Occurrence of phthalates in facemasks used in India and its implications for human exposure

Synthetic polymers with additives are used in the manufacturing of face masks (FMs); hence, FMs could be a potential source of exposure to phthalic acid esters (PAEs). India stands second in the world in terms of the FMs usage since the beginning of Covid-19 pandemic. However, little is known about the PAEs content of FMs used in India. Some PAEs, such as DEHP and DBP are suspected endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs); hence, wearing FM may increase the risk of exposure to these EDCs. In this study, we collected 91 samples of FMs from eight Indian cities and analyzed for five PAEs viz. DMP, DEP, DBP, BBP, and DEHP. The PAEs contents in FMs ranged from 101.79 to 27,948.64 ng/g. The carcinogenic risk of N 95 with filter, N-95, and cloth masks was higher than the threshold levels. The findings indicate the need to control PAEs in FMs through regulatory actions.

Association between urinary phthalate metabolites and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease incidence in US adults: results from NHANES 2007-2018

Despite associations between urinary phthalates and respiratory symptoms and disorders have been investigated, knowledge about their impact on COPD incidence remains limited. Using data of 8242 adults (aged 20-80 years) from the 2007-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), the association of mixed urinary phthalate metabolites with COPD incidence was evaluated. Among them, 789 were COPD patients, and the rest were non-COPD participants. In the single-pollutant models, a variety of phthalate metabolites were identified as independent positive factors for COPD incidence, including mono-(carboxynonyl) phthalate (MCNP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), mono-(3-carboxylpropyl) phthalate (MCPP), mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), and mono-benzyl phthalate (MBzP). Multi-pollutant models, including weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression, quantile-based g computation (qgcomp), and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) approaches consistently revealed the positive association between phthalates co-exposure and COPD incidence, and MCPP was recognized as the dominant positive driver. The positive association was more evident in the youth group and the male group. The interactions between certain phthalate metabolites in COPD were also observed. Given the limitations of the cross-sectional design of NHANES study, well-designed longitudinal studies are needed to verify or disprove these findings.

PACEMweb: a tool for aggregate consumer exposure assessment

BACKGROUND

To ascertain the safe use of chemicals that are used in multiple consumer products, the aggregate human exposure, arising from combined use of multiple consumer products needs to be assessed.

OBJECTIVE

In this work the Probabilistic Aggregate Consumer Exposure Model (PACEM) is presented and discussed. PACEM is implemented in the publicly available web tool, PACEMweb, for aggregate consumer exposure assessment.

METHODS

PACEM uses a person-oriented simulation method that is based on realistic product usage information obtained in surveys from several European countries. PACEM evaluates aggregate exposure in a population considering individual use and co-use patterns as well as variation in product composition. Product usage data is included on personal care products (PCPs) and household cleaning products (HCPs).

RESULTS

PACEM has been implemented in a web tool that supports broad use in research as well as regulatory risk assessment. PACEM has been evaluated in a number of applications, testing and illustrating the advantage of the person-oriented modeling method. Also, PACEM assessments have been evaluated by comparing its results with biomonitoring information.

SIGNIFICANCE

PACEM enables the assessment of realistic aggregate exposure to chemicals in consumer products. It provides detailed insight into the distribution of exposure in a population as well as products that contribute the most to exposure. This allows for better informed decision making in the risk management of chemicals.

IMPACT

Realistic assessment of the total, aggregate exposure of consumers to chemicals in consumer products is necessary to guarantee the safe use of chemicals in these products. PACEMweb provides, for the first time, a publicly available tool to assist in realistic aggregate exposure assessment of consumers to chemicals in consumer products.

Analysis of ortho-phthalates and other plasticizers in select organic and conventional foods in the United States

BACKGROUND

ortho-phthalates and other plasticizers impart flexibility to plastics in food production, processing, and packaging; food consumption is a dominant plasticizer exposure pathway. Lower molecular weight ortho-phthalates are being replaced in plastic products due to toxicity concerns, but toxic hazards of and exposures to replacement ortho-phthalates and other plasticizers are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

We measured 12 ortho-phthalates and 9 other plasticizers in conventional and organic U.S. food products to assess magnitude and profiles of contamination.

METHODS

We measured plasticizers in 34 vegetable oils, 10 milks, 18 infant formulas, and 9 cheese powders from macaroni kits using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We analyzed plastic packaging composition using FTIR spectroscopy.

RESULTS

We detected eight ortho-phthalates and three alternatives ((1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (DINCH), diethylhexyl terephthalate (DEHT), and diisobutyl adipate (DIBA). Diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) was measured in all 71 products. DEHT had the highest concentration of any plasticizer (>10,000 ng/g in three oils). Oils had the highest total plasticizer (median = 770 ng/g, max = 14,900 ng/g) and milk the lowest (median = 88 ng/g, max = 120 ng/g). Organic milk and refined oils had higher median plasticizer levels than conventional. Refined oils had significantly lower concentrations than unrefined oils. Maximum contributors for every category were non-ortho-phthalates: DEHT (powdered infant formula and oils) and DIBA (cheese powder, milk and liquid formula). Plasticizers were not detected in packaging except epoxidized soybean oil in liquid formula lids.

IMPACT STATEMENT

Human exposure to plasticizers is a significant public health concern. Nevertheless, sources of such exposures are poorly characterized. This study adds valuable information for estimating legacy and alternative plasticizer exposures from foods. The method developed for measuring DINCH, DINP and DIDP broadens the range of plasticizers other researchers may analyze in future work. The profiles of plasticizer contamination varied depending on the food type. We also document that food processing may be a source of plasticizer contamination in foods.

Mitocytosis Is Critical for Phthalate-Induced Injury to the Ovarian Granulosa Cell Layer in Quail (Coturnix japonica)

Phthalates are widely used synthetic chemicals that determine endocrine disruption effects on female reproductivity and oviposition. Our study demonstrated that the mitochondrial quality in ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) is associated with a poor prognosis in female reproduction. However, the molecular mechanism of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) exposure on the quail ovarian GC layer is still unknown. To validate the effects of DEHP on the GC layer, 8 days' old 150 female Japanese quail were treated orally with DEHP (250, 500, and 750 mg/kg BW/day) for 45 days to explore the toxic effects of DEHP on the ovarian GC layer. Histopathological assessment and ultrastructure observation found that DEHP decreased the thickness of the GC layer, resulted in mitochondrial damage, and activated mitocytosis. Additionally, the results further suggested that DEHP impacted the secretion of steroid hormones (reduced FSH, E2, and T levels and boosted Prog, PRL, and LH levels) by triggering mitocytosis (enhanced transcription of MYO19 and protein of KIF5B levels), mitochondrial dynamics (increasing mRNA and protein levels of OPA1, DRP1, MFN1, and MFN2), mitophagy (increasing mRNA and protein levels of Parkin, LC3B, and P62), and inducing GC function disorder. In conclusion, our research provided a new idea to explain the mechanism of DEHP toxicity of the ovarian GC layer in quail and presented insights into the role of mitocytosis in DEHP-induced ovarian GC layer injury.

Urinary levels of parabens, phthalate metabolites, bisphenol A and plasticizer alternatives in a Belgian population: Time trend or impact of an awareness campaign?

A human biomonitoring study was carried out in 2015 within an adult population living in Liege (Belgium). Some phthalate metabolites and parabens were measured in the urine of 252 participants, and information were collected about their food habits, life styles and home environment to identify some predictors of exposure. Concomitantly, an awareness campaign was initiated by the Provincial Authorities of Liege and spread over 2 years. Three years later (2018), 92 of the initial participants provided again urine samples, and the levels of phthalate metabolites, phthalate substitute (DINCH), parabens, bisphenol-A and bisphenol alternatives (bisphenol-S, -F, -Z, -P) were determined and compared to those obtained in 2015 to assess time trends. In 2015, methyl- and ethylparaben were the most abundant parabens (P50 = 9.12 μg/L and 1.1 μg/L respectively), while propyl- and butylparaben were sparsely detected. Except for mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and 6-OH-mono-propyl-heptyl phthalate, all other targeted phthalate metabolites were positively quantified in most of the urine samples (between 89 and 98%) with median concentrations ranging between 2.7 μg/L and 21.3 μg/L depending on the metabolite. The multivariate regression models highlighted some significant associations between urinary phthalate metabolite or paraben levels and age, rural or urban character of the residence place, and the use of some personal care products. However, all determination coefficients were weak meaning that the usual covariates included in the models only explained a small part of the variance. Between 2015 and 2018, levels of parabens and phthalate metabolites significantly decreased (from 1.3 to 2.5 fold) except for monoethyl phthalate which seemed to remain quite constant. Contrariwise, all bisphenol alternatives and DINCH metabolites were measured in higher concentrations in 2018 vs 2015 while BPA levels did not differ significantly. However, it was not feasible to unequivocally highlight an impact of the awareness campaign on the exposure levels of the population.

Physiologically-based toxicokinetic modeling of human dermal exposure to diethyl phthalate: Application to health risk assessment

Diethyl phthalate (DEP) has been most frequently detected in personal care products (PCPs) as a solvent followed by indoor air as one of the semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs). Human exposure to DEP predominantly occurs via dermal uptake. However, the available physiologically based toxicokinetics (PBTK) models are developed in rats for risk assessment of DEP exposure resulting from the oral than dermal pathway. To address this issue, DEP in simulated PCPs was dermally administrated to five adult volunteers at real population levels. Following the construction of a dermal absorption model for DEP, the dermal PBTK modeling of DEP involving PCPs and air-to-skin exposure routes in humans was developed for the first time. The data of monoethyl phthalate (MEP) in serum or urine obtained from published human studies and this study were applied to calibrate and validate the developed dermal PBTK model. Monte Carlo simulation was used to evaluate model uncertainty. The dermal absorption fraction of DEP was obtained to be 56.2% for PCPs exposure and 100% for air-to-skin exposure, respectively. Approximate 24.9% of DEP in exposed skin became absorbed into systemic circulation. Model predictions were generally within 2-fold of the observed MEP levels in human serum or urine. Uncertainty analysis showed 90% of the predicted variability (P₉₅/P₅) fell within less than one order of magnitude. Assuming human intake of 5 mg/kg bw per day, the predicted serum area under the curve at steady state of DEP from the dermal route was 1.7 (PCPs) and 2.4 (air) times of those from the peroral route, respectively. It suggested that dermal exposure to DEP would pose greater risk to human health compared with oral exposure. The application of the developed dermal PBTK model provides a valuable insight into health risk assessment of DEP in humans.

Methodology for Determining Phthalate Residues by Ultrasound–Vortex-Assisted Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction and GC-IT/MS in Hot Drink Samples by Vending Machines

In this study, a simple, fast, and effective methodology has been developed for the detection and quantification of seven phthalates potentially released in hot drinks from disposable containers used in vending machines. The authors determined the optimal conditions to be applied during the various steps of extraction of seven phthalates (DMP, DEP, DBP, DiBP, DEHP, DNOP, and DDP) from hot beverages using a model solution. The extraction and preconcentration technique used was ultrasound–vortex-assisted dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (UVA-DLLME) followed by gas chromatographic analysis obtaining recoveries from 66.7% to 101.2% with precision and reproducibility <6.3% and <11.1%, respectively. The influence of waiting time, from the dispensing of the drink to its actual consumption, for the extraction of molecules was investigated, obtaining a temporal release profile slightly shifted towards the PAEs with higher molecular weight and vice versa for those with low molecular weight. In addition, the best instrumental parameters to be applied during the analysis of the extracts obtained were established. This optimization was carried out using GC-FID, whereas the analysis of real samples was carried out by means of GC-IT/MS for ultra-trace analysis purposes; limits of detection (LODs) ranging between 0.8 ng mL−1 and 15.4 ng mL−1 and limits of quantification (LOQs) from 1.6 ng mL−1 to 35.8 ng mL−1, both of them lower than those found by FID, were obtained.

Diurnal Variation in Biomarkers of Exposure to Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Their Association with Oxidative Damage in Norwegian Adults: The EuroMix Study

Much evidence on the adverse health effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) has accumulated during recent decades. EDCs are commonly found in various foods and personal care products (PCP). Data documenting a diurnally varying EDC metabolism in humans is scarce. This study examined (i) the time-of-day effect on the diurnal magnitude and variance of urinary biomarkers of exposure to EDCs, and (ii) the association between EDC exposures and oxidative damage in a Norwegian adult subpopulation. This was a cross-sectional panel study using biobanked samples from the EuroMix project. During a typical weekday, participants were asked to collect all day’s urine voids and record dietary and PCP habitual uses in a diary. Collected time stamps of urine voids were classified into three distinct periods in the day (morning 6 a.m.−12 p.m., mid-day 12 p.m.−6 p.m., evening 6 p.m.−6 a.m.). Questionnaires regarding demographic characteristics, personal care product usage, and dietary habits were completed. Urinary levels of EDCs (phthalates, parabens, and bisphenols) were measured using mass spectrometry and adjusted for urinary volume using specific gravity. Urinary 4-hydroxynonenal (4HNE), a lipid peroxidation marker, was measured using an immunoassay kit. Linear mixed-effect models identified EDCs under the influence of a diurnal variation effect that was adjusted for dietary habits and PCP use and examined associations between EDC and 4HNE. p-values were FDR-adjusted. Most phthalates appeared to be diurnally varying with higher urinary levels towards the evening (q < 0.001) than those measured during mid-day; this strong diurnal variation effect was not present for parabens and bisphenols. Significant (q < 0.001) positive associations were observed between all phthalates, parabens, and bisphenols (except bisphenol S) and 4HNE. This study’s findings highlighted the diurnal variation of excretion for certain EDC, but not for others, in real-life conditions. The degree of EDC chronotoxicity in distinct diurnal windows of the day warrants further investigation with longitudinal human studies.

Culturing and Molecular Approaches for Identifying Microbiota Taxa Impacting Children's Obesogenic Phenotypes Related to Xenobiotic Dietary Exposure

Integrated data from molecular and improved culturomics studies might offer holistic insights on gut microbiome dysbiosis triggered by xenobiotics, such as obesity and metabolic disorders. Bisphenol A (BPA), a dietary xenobiotic obesogen, was chosen for a directed culturing approach using microbiota specimens from 46 children with obesity and normal-weight profiles. In parallel, a complementary molecular analysis was carried out to estimate the BPA metabolising capacities. Firstly, catalogues of 237 BPA directed-cultured microorganisms were isolated using five selected media and several BPA treatments and conditions. Taxa from Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria were the most abundant in normal-weight and overweight/obese children, with species belonging to the genera Enterococcus, Escherichia, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, and Clostridium. Secondly, the representative isolated taxa from normal-weight vs. overweight/obese were grouped as BPA biodegrader, tolerant, or resistant bacteria, according to the presence of genes encoding BPA enzymes in their whole genome sequences. Remarkably, the presence of sporobiota and concretely Bacillus spp. showed the higher BPA biodegradation potential in overweight/obese group compared to normal-weight, which could drive a relevant role in obesity and metabolic dysbiosis triggered by these xenobiotics.

Human health impacts of exposure to phthalate plasticizers: An overview of reviews

In this review of reviews, we overview the current global body of available evidence from structured reviews of epidemiological studies that explore human health outcomes associated with exposure to phthalates (chemical plasticisers commonly found in plastics). We found robust evidence for an association with lower semen quality, neurodevelopment and risk of childhood asthma, and moderate to robust evidence for impact on anogenital distance in boys. We identified moderate evidence for an association between phthalates/metabolites and low birthweight, endometriosis, decreased testosterone, ADHD, Type 2 diabetes and breast/uterine cancer. There was some evidence for other outcomes including anofourchette distance, fetal sex hormones, pre-term birth, lower antral follicle count, reduced oestrodiol, autism, obesity, thyroid function and hearing disorders. We found no reviews of epidemiological human studies on the impact of phthalates from recycled plastics on human health. We recommend that future research should use urine samples as exposure measures, consider confounders in analyses and measure impacts on female reproductive systems. Our findings align with emerging research indicating that health risks can occur at exposure levels below the "safe dose" levels set out by regulators, and are of particular concern given potential additive or synergistic "cocktail effects" of chemicals. This raises important policy and regulatory issues for identifying and controlling plastics and health related impacts and highlights a need for more research into substances of concern entering plastics waste streams via recycling.