Coordination between root cell wall thickening and pectin modification is involved in cadmium accumulation in Sedum alfredii

Integrated proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics offer novel insights into Cd resistance and accumulation in Poa pratensis

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L., KB) demonstrates superior performance in both cadmium (Cd) accumulation and tolerance; however, the regulatory mechanisms and detoxification pathways in this species remain unclear. Therefore, phenotype, root ultrastructure, cell wall components, proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics were analyzed under the hydroponic system to investigate the Cd tolerance and accumulation mechanisms in the Cd-tolerant KB variety 'Midnight (M)' and the Cd-sensitive variety 'Rugby II (R)' under Cd stress. The M variety exhibited higher levels of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups as revealed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectral analysis. Additionally, a reduced abundance of polysaccharide degradation proteins was observed in the M variety. The higher abundance of glutathione S-transferase and content of L-cysteine-glutathione disulfide and oxidized glutathione in the M variety may contribute to better performance of the M variety under Cd stress. Additionally, the R variety had an enhanced content of carboxylic acids and derivatives, increasing the Cd translocation capacity. Collectively, the down-regulation of cell wall polysaccharide degradation genes coupled with the up-regulation of glutathione metabolism genes enhances the tolerance to Cd stress in KB. Additionally, lignification of the endodermis and the increase in carboxylic acids and derivatives play crucial roles in the redistribution of Cd in KB.

Root cell wall polysaccharides and endodermal barriers restrict long-distance Cd translocation in the roots of Kentucky bluegrass

Soil Cd pollution is a significant environmental issue faced by contemporary society. Kentucky bluegrass is considered a potential phytoremediation species, as some varieties have excellent cadmium (Cd) tolerance. However, the mechanisms of Cd accumulation and transportation in Kentucky bluegrass are still not fully understood. The Cd-tolerant Kentucky bluegrass cultivar 'Midnight' (M) exhibits lower Cd translocation efficiency and a higher leaf Cd concentration compared to the Cd-sensitive cultivar 'Rugby II' (R). We hypothesized that Cd translocation from roots to shoots in cultivar M is hindered by the endodermal barriers and cell wall polysaccharides; hence, we conducted Cd distribution, cytological observation, cell wall component, and transcriptomic analyses under Cd stress conditions using the M and R cultivars. Cd stress resulted in the thickening of the endodermis and increased synthesis of cell wall polysaccharides in both the M and R cultivars. Endodermis development restricted the radical transport of Cd from the root cortex to the stele, while the accumulation of cell wall polysaccharides promoted the binding of Cd to the cell wall. These changes further inhibited the long-distance translocation of Cd from the roots to the aerial parts. Furthermore, the M cultivar exhibited limited long-distance Cd translocation efficiency compared to the R cultivar, which was attributed to the enhanced development of endodermal barriers and increased Cd binding by cell wall polysaccharides. This study provides valuable insights for screening high Cd transport efficiency in Kentucky bluegrass based on anatomical structure and genetic modification.

Integrated cell wall and transcriptomic analysis revealed the mechanism underlying zinc-induced alleviation of cadmium toxicity in Cosmos bipinnatus

Plant growth is severely harmed by cadmium (Cd) contamination, while the addition of zinc (Zn) can reduce the toxic effects of Cd. However, the interaction between Cd and Zn on the molecular mechanism and cell wall of Cosmosbipinnatus is unclear. In this study, a transcriptome was constructed using RNA-sequencing. In C. bipinnatus root transcriptome data, the expression of 996, 2765, and 3023 unigenes were significantly affected by Cd, Zn, and Cd + Zn treatments, respectively, indicating different expression patterns of some metal transporters among the Cd, Zn, and Cd + Zn treatments. With the addition of Zn, the damage to the cell wall was reduced, both the proportion and content of polysaccharides in the cell wall were changed, and Cd accumulation was decreased by 32.34%. In addition, we found that Cd and Zn mainly accumulated in pectins, the content of which increased by 30.79% and 61.4% compared to the CK treatment. Thus, Zn could alleviate the toxicity of Cd to C. bipinnatus. This study revealed the interaction between Cd and Zn at the physiological and molecular levels, broadening our understanding of the mechanisms of tolerance to Cd and Zn stress in cosmos.

Natural variation of TBR confers plant zinc toxicity tolerance through root cell wall pectin methylesterification

Zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient but can be cytotoxic when present in excess. Plants have evolved mechanisms to tolerate Zn toxicity. To identify genetic loci responsible for natural variation of plant tolerance to Zn toxicity, we conduct genome-wide association studies for root growth responses to high Zn and identify 21 significant associated loci. Among these loci, we identify Trichome Birefringence (TBR) allelic variation determining root growth variation in high Zn conditions. Natural alleles of TBR determine TBR transcript and protein levels which affect pectin methylesterification in root cell walls. Together with previously published data showing that pectin methylesterification increase goes along with decreased Zn binding to cell walls in TBR mutants, our findings lead to a model in which TBR allelic variation enables Zn tolerance through modulating root cell wall pectin methylesterification. The role of TBR in Zn tolerance is conserved across dicot and monocot plant species.

Rapid assessment of heavy metal accumulation capability of Sedum alfredii using hyperspectral imaging and deep learning

Hyperaccumulators are the material basis and key to the phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils. Conventional methods for screening hyperaccumulators are highly dependent on the time- and labor-consuming sampling and chemical analysis. In this study, a novel spectral approach assisted with multi-task deep learning was proposed to streamline accumulating ecotype screening, heavy metal stress discrimination, and heavy metals quantification in plants. The significant Cd/Zn co-hyperaccumulator Sedum alfredii and its non-accumulating ecotype were stressed by Cd, Zn, and Pb. Spectral images of leaves were rapidly acquired by hyperspectral imaging. The self-designed deep learning architecture was composed of a shallow network (ENet) for accumulating ecotype identification, and a multi-task network (HMNet) for heavy metal stress type and accumulation prediction simultaneously. To further assess the robustness of the networks, they were compared with conventional machine learning models (i.e., partial least squares (PLS) and support vector machine (SVM)) on a series of evaluation metrics of classification, multi-label classification, and regression. S. alfredii with heavy metals accumulation capability was identified by ENet with 100 % accuracy. HMNet reduced overfitting and outperformed machine learning models with the average exact match ratio (EMR) of heavy metal stress discrimination increased by 7.46 %, and residual prediction deviations (RPD) of heavy metal concentrations prediction increased by 53.59 %. The method succeeded in rapidly and accurately discriminating heavy metal stress with EMRs over 91 % and accuracies over 96 %, and in predicting heavy metals accumulation with an average RPD of 3.29 for Zn, 2.57 for Cd, and 2.53 for Pb, indicating the satisfactory practicability and potential for sensing heavy metals accumulation. This study provides a relatively novel spectral method to facilitate hyperaccumulator screening and heavy metals accumulation prediction in the phytoremediation process.

Integrated transcriptome and metabolomics analyses revealed key functional genes in Canna indica under Cr stress

Chromium (Cr) can interfere with plant gene expression, change the content of metabolites and affect plant growth. However, the molecular response mechanism of wetland plants at different time sequences under Cr stress has yet to be fully understood. In this study, Canna indica was exposed to 100 mg/kg Cr-contaminated soil for 0, 7, 14, and 21 days and analyzed using untargeted metabolomics (LC-MS) and transcriptomics. The results showed that Cr stress increased the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and peroxidase (POD), the contents of glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and oxygen free radical (ROS), and inhibited the biosynthesis of photosynthetic pigments, thus leading to changes in plant growth and biomass. Metabonomics analysis showed that Cr stress mainly affected 12 metabolic pathways, involving 38 differentially expressed metabolites, including amino acids, phenylpropane, and flavonoids. By transcriptome analysis, a total of 16,247 differentially expressed genes (DEGs, 7710 up-regulated genes, and 8537 down-regulated genes) were identified, among which, at the early stage of stress (Cr contaminate seven days), C. indica responds to Cr toxicity mainly through galactose, starch and sucrose metabolism. With the extension of stress time, plant hormone signal transduction and MAPK signaling pathway in C. indica in the Cr14 (Cr contaminate 14 days) treatment group were significantly affected. Finally, in the late stage of stress (Cr21), C. indica co-defuses Cr toxicity by activating its Glutathione metabolism and Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. In conclusion, this study revealed the molecular response mechanism of C. indica to Cr stress at different times through multi-omics methods.

Integrative physiological, transcriptomic, and metabolomic analysis of Abelmoschus manihot in response to Cd toxicity

Rapid industrialization and urbanization have caused severe soil contamination with cadmium (Cd) necessitating effective remediation strategies. Phytoremediation is a widely adopted technology for remediating Cd-contaminated soil. Previous studies have shown that Abelmoschus manihot has a high Cd accumulation capacity and tolerance indicating its potential for Cd soil remediation. However, the mechanisms underlying its response to Cd stress remain unclear. In this study, physiological, transcriptomic, and metabolomic analyses were conducted to explore the response of A. manihot roots to Cd stress at different time points. The results revealed that Cd stress significantly increased malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in A. manihot, which simultaneously activated its antioxidant defense system, enhancing the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT) by 19.73%-50%, 22.87%-38.89%, and 32.31%-45.40% at 12 h, 36 h, 72 h, and 7 days, respectively, compared with those in the control (CK). Moreover, transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses revealed 245, 5,708, 9,834, and 2,323 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), along with 66, 62, 156, and 90 differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) at 12 h, 36 h, 72 h, and 7 days, respectively. Through weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) of physiological indicators and transcript expression, eight hub genes involved in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, signal transduction, and metal transport were identified. In addition, integrative analyses of metabolomic and transcriptomic data highlighted the activation of lipid metabolism and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathways under Cd stress suggesting that these pathways play crucial roles in the detoxification process and in enhancing Cd tolerance in A. manihot. This comprehensive study provides detailed insights into the response mechanisms of A. manihot to Cd toxicity.

Effect of Auxin on Cadmium Toxicity-Induced Growth Inhibition in Solanum lycopersicum

Auxins play crucial regulatory roles in plants coping with cadmium (Cd) stress. However, the regulatory mechanism by which auxins alleviate Cd toxicity in tomato seedlings remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that exposure to Cd stress leads to dynamic changes in the auxin response in tomato roots, characterized by an initial increase followed by a subsequent weakening. Under Cd stress, tomato seedlings show primary root- and hypocotyl-growth inhibition, accompanied by the accumulation of Cd and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the roots. The exogenous application of 1-naphthylacetic acid (NAA) does not mitigate the inhibitory effect of Cd toxicity on primary root growth, but it does significantly enhance lateral root development under Cd stress. Auxin transport inhibitors, such as 1-N-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) and 2,3,5-triiodobenoic acid (TIBA), aggravate the growth inhibition of primary roots caused by Cd stress. Additionally, lateral root development was inhibited by NPA. However, applying auxin synthesis inhibitors L-kynurenine (kyn) and yucasin alleviated the tomato root growth inhibition caused by Cd stress; between them, the effect of yucasin was more pronounced. Yucasin mitigates Cd toxicity in tomato seedlings by reducing Cd2+ absorption and auxin accumulation, strengthening ROS scavenging, and reducing cell death in roots. These observations suggest that yucasin potentially mitigates Cd toxicity and improves the tolerance of tomato seedlings to Cd stress.

Responses and resistance capacity of Solanum nigrum L. mediated by three ecological category earthworms in metal-[Cd-As-Cu-Pb]-contaminated soils of North China

Earthworms play vital functions affecting plant growth and metal accumulation from downground to aboveground. Soil metal mobilization may be combined with use of earthworm and hyperaccumulator-Solanum nigrum to improve its remediation efficiency. Understanding the effects of specific-species earthworm belonging to different ecological categories on mechanisms underlying of S. nigrum is critical for metal-polluted remediation. However, seldom studies concerned earthworm-assisted phytoremediation of metal contaminated soil in Northern China. This study investigated the effects of earthworm (Eisenia fetida, Amynthas hupeiensis and Drawida gisti) on S. nigrum with exposure to uncontaminated and [Cd-As-Cu-Pb]-contaminated soil (referred to as S0 and S1) for 60 days, respectively. In S1 soil, A. hupeiensis (anecic) had stronger effects on growth and metal accumulation in the organs (root, stem, and leaf) of S. nigrum than D. gisti (endogeic) and E. fetida (epigeic), attributing to their ecological category. The BAF values of S. nigrum were generally ranking in Cd (0.66-5.13) > As (0.03-1.85) > Cu (0.03-0.06) > Pb (0.01-0.05); the BAFCd values were ranking in leaf (2.34-5.13) > root (1.96-4.14) > stem (0.66-1.33); BAFAs, BAFCu, and BAFPb were root (0.04-1.63) > stem (0.01-0.09) ≈ leaf (0.01-0.06). A. hupeiensis decreased the TF values of S. nigrum from the roots to the shoots. Co-effects of metal stress and earthworm activity on metal uptake by shoots suggested that A. hupeiensis increased the uptake of As, Cu, and Pb (by 56.3 %, 51.5 %, and 16.2 %, p < 0.05), but not Cd, which appeared to remain steady for prolonged durations. Alterations in the integrated biomarker response index version 2 (IBRv2) values demonstrated that A. hupeiensis (12.65) improved the resistance capacity (stimulated GSH, SnGS1, and SnCu-SOD) of S. nigrum under metal-containing conditions, compared with E. fetida and D. gisti (IBRv2 were 9.61 and 9.11). This study may provide insights into the patterns of 'soil-earthworm-plant system' on improving remediation efficiency of S. nigrum, from the perspective of earthworm ecological niche partitioning.

Integrated morphological, physiological and transcriptomic analyses reveal response mechanisms of rice under different cadmium exposure routes

Rice (Oryza sativa) is one of the major cereal crops and takes up cadmium (Cd) more readily than other crops. Understanding the mechanism of Cd uptake and defense in rice can help us avoid Cd in the food chain. However, studies comparing Cd uptake, toxicity, and detoxification mechanisms of leaf and root Cd exposure at the morphological, physiological, and transcriptional levels are still lacking. Therefore, experiments were conducted in this study and found that root Cd exposure resulted in more severe oxidative and photosynthetic damage, lower plant biomass, higher Cd accumulation, and transcriptional changes in rice than leaf Cd exposure. The activation of phenylpropanoids biosynthesis in both root and leaf tissues under different Cd exposure routes suggests that increased lignin is the response mechanism of rice under Cd stress. Moreover, the roots of rice are more sensitive to Cd stress and their adaptation responses are more pronounced than those of leaves. Quantitative PCR revealed that OsPOX, OsCAD, OsPAL and OsCCR play important roles in the response to Cd stress, which further emphasize the importance of lignin. Therefore, this study provides theoretical evidence for future chemical and genetic regulation of lignin biosynthesis in crop plants to reduce Cd accumulation.

Methyl jasmonate regulation of pectin polysaccharides in Cosmos bipinnatus roots: A mechanistic insight into alleviating cadmium toxicity

Methyl jasmonate (MeJA), a crucial phytohormone, which plays an important role in resistance to Cadmium (Cd) stress. The cell wall (CW) of root system is the main location of Cd and plays a key role in resistance to Cd toxicity. However, the mechanism effect of MeJA on the CW composition and Cd accumulation remain unclear. In this study, the contribution of MeJA in regulating CW structure, pectin composition and Cd accumulation was investigated in Cosmos bipinnatus. Phenotypic results affirm MeJA's significant role in reducing Cd-induced toxicity in C. bipinnatus. Notably, MeJA exerts a dual impact, reducing Cd uptake in roots while increasing Cd accumulation in the CW, particularly bound to pectin. The molecular structure of pectin, mainly uronic acid (UA), correlates positively with Cd content, consistent in HC1 and cellulose, emphasizing UA as pivotal for Cd binding. Furthermore, MeJA modulates pectin methylesterase (PME) activity under Cd stress, influencing pectin's molecular structure and homogalacturonan (HG) content affecting Cd-binding capacity. Chelate-soluble pectin (CSP) within soluble pectins accumulates a substantial Cd proportion, with MeJA regulating both UA content and the minor component 3-deoxy-oct-2-ulosonic acid (Kdo) in CSP. The study delves into the intricate regulation of pectin monosaccharide composition under Cd stress, revealing insights into the CW's physical defense and Cd binding. In summary, this research provides novel insights into MeJA-specific mechanisms alleviating Cd toxicity in C. bipinnatus, shedding light on complex interactions between MeJA, and Cd accumulation in CW pectin polysaccharide.

Mechanisms of low cadmium accumulation in crops: A comprehensive overview from rhizosphere soil to edible parts

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal often found in soil and agricultural products. Due to its high mobility, Cd poses a significant health risk when absorbed by crops, a crucial component of the human diet. This absorption primarily occurs through roots and leaves, leading to Cd accumulation in edible parts of the plant. Our research aimed to understand the mechanisms behind the reduced Cd accumulation in certain crop cultivars through an extensive review of the literature. Crops employ various strategies to limit Cd influx from the soil, including rhizosphere microbial fixation and altering root cell metabolism. Additional mechanisms include membrane efflux, specific transport, chelation, and detoxification, facilitated by metalloproteins such as the natural resistance-associated macrophage protein (Nramp) family, heavy metal P-type ATPases (HMA), zinc-iron permease (ZIP), and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. This paper synthesizes differences in Cd accumulation among plant varieties, presents methods for identifying cultivars with low Cd accumulation, and explores the unique molecular biology of Cd accumulation. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive resource for managing agricultural lands with lower contamination levels and supports the development of crops engineered to accumulate minimal amounts of Cd.

Physiological, transcriptome and gene functional analysis provide novel sights into cadmium accumulation and tolerance mechanisms in kenaf

Kenaf is considered to have great potential for remediation of heavy metals in ecosystems. However, studies on molecular mechanisms of root Cd accumulation and tolerance are still inadequate. In this study, two differently tolerant kenaf cultivars were selected as materials and the physiological and transcriptomic effects were evaluated under Cd stress. This study showed that 200 µmol/L CdCl2 treatment triggered the reactive oxygen species (ROS) explosion and membrane lipid peroxidation. Compared with the Cd-sensitive cultivar 'Z', the Cd-tolerant cultivar 'F' was able to resist oxidative stress in cells by producing higher antioxidant enzyme activities and increasing the contents of ascorbic acid (AsA) and glutathione (GSH). The root cell wall of 'F' exhibited higher polysaccharide contents under Cd treatment, providing more Cd-binding sites. There were 3,439 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that were co-regulated by Cd treatment in two cultivars. Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and plant hormone signal transduction pathways were significantly enriched by functional annotation analysis. DEGs associated with pectin, cellulose, and hemi-cellulose metabolism were involved in Cd chelation of root cell wall; V-ATPases, ABCC3 and Narmp3 could participated in vacuolar compartmentalization of Cd; PDR1 was responsible for Cd efflux; the organic acid transporters contributed to the absorption of Cd in soil. These genes might have played key roles in kenaf Cd tolerance and Cd accumulation. Moreover, HcZIP2 was identified to be involved in Cd uptake and transport in kenaf. Our findings provide a deeper understanding of the molecular pathways underlying Cd accumulation and detoxification mechanisms in kenaf.

Amino acid application inhibits root-to-shoot cadmium translocation in Chinese cabbage by modulating pectin methyl-esterification

The exogenous application of amino acids (AAs) generally alleviates cadmium (Cd) toxicity in plants by altering their subcellular distribution. However, the physiological mechanisms underlying AA-mediated cell wall (CW) sequestration of Cd in Chinese cabbage remain unclear. Using two genotypes of Chinses cabbage, Jingcui 60 (Cd-tolerant) and 16-7 (Cd-sensitive), we characterized the root structure, subcellular distribution of Cd, CW component, and related gene expression under the Cd stress. Cysteine (Cys) supplementation led to a reduction in the Cd concentration in the shoots of Jingcui 60 and 16-7 by 65.09 % and 64.03 %, respectively. Addition of Cys alleviated leaf chlorosis in both cultivars by increasing Cd chelation in the root CW and reducing its distribution in the cytoplasm and organelles. We further demonstrated that Cys supplementation mediated the downregulation of PMEI1 expression and improving the activity of pectin methyl-esterase (PME) by 17.98 % and 25.52 % in both cultivars, respectively, compared to the Cd treatment, resulting in an approximate 12.00 %-14.70 % increase in Cd retention in pectin. In contrast, threonine (Thr) application did not significantly alter Cd distribution in the shoots of either cultivar. Taken together, our results suggest that Cys application reduces Cd root-to-shoot translocation by increasing Cd sequestration in the root CW through the downregulation of pectin methyl-esterification.

Mutation of OsNRAMP5 reduces cadmium xylem and phloem transport in rice plants and its physiological mechanism

Natural resistance associated macrophage protein 5 (NRAMP5) is a key transporter for cadmium (Cd) uptake by rice roots; however, the effect of OsNRAMP5 on Cd translocation and redistribution in rice plants remains unknown. In this study, an extremely low Cd-accumulation mutant (lcd1) and wild type (WT) plants were utilized to investigate the effect of OsNRAMP5 mutation on Cd translocation and redistribution via the xylem and phloem and its possible physiological mechanism using field, hydroponic and isotope-labelling experiments. The results showed that OsNRAMP5 mutation reduced xylem and phloem transport of Cd, due to remarkably lower Cd translocation from roots to shoots and from the leaves Ⅰ-Ⅲ to their corresponding nodes, as well as lower Cd concentrations in xylem and phloem sap of lcd1 compared to WT plants. Mutation of OsNRAMP5 reduced Cd translocation from roots to shoots in lcd1 plants by increasing Cd deposition in cellulose of root cell walls and reducing OsHMA2-and OsCCX2-mediated xylem loading of Cd, and the citric acid- and tartaric acid-mediated long-distance xylem transport of Cd. Moreover, OsNRAMP5 mutation inhibited Cd redistribution from flag leaves to nodes and panicles in lcd1 plants by increasing Cd sequestration in cellulose and vacuoles, and decreasing OsLCT1-mediated Cd phloem transport in flag leaves.

Exploring the mechanism of exopolysaccharides in mitigating cadmium toxicity in rice through analyzing the changes of antioxidant system

Recently, exopolysaccharides (EPS) were found to alleviate cadmium (Cd) toxicity to crops by regulating the antioxidant system, but the mechanism remains unclear. Herein, by quantitative and transcriptomic approaches, a systematical map of the changes in the antioxidant system was drawn to dissected the underlying mechanism. The results demonstrated that the ascorbate-glutathione cycle (ASA-GSH cycle) is a major contributor. Specifically, compared to the control, the rice exposed to Cd exhibited a significant increase in the GSH pool (about 9-fold at 7 d), but a continuous decrease in the ASA pool (only 15.42% remained at 15 d) and an excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Interestingly, with the addition of EPS, the increase of the GSH pool significantly slowed down (decreased by 180.18% at 7 d, compared to the Cd-stressed treatment), and the ASA pool remained high (consistently above 70.00% of the control group). ROS also maintained at a good level. Moreover, the activities of enzymatic antioxidants showed the similar trend. By RNA-Seq analysis, multiple genes enriched in ASA-GSH related pathway were screened (such as OsRBOHB, OsGST, OsPOD) for further study. This study provides a foundation for EPS application in agriculture, which also establishes a better way for analyzing antioxidant system.

Selenium-molybdenum interactions reduce chromium toxicity in Nicotiana tabacum L. by promoting chromium chelation on the cell wall

Chromium (Cr) is a hazardous heavy metal that negatively affects animals and plants. The micronutrients selenium (Se) and molybdenum (Mo) have been widely shown to alleviate heavy metal toxicity in plants. However, the molecular mechanism of Cr chelation on the cell wall by combined treatment with Se and Mo has not been reported. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the effects of Se-Mo interactions on the subcellular distribution of Cr (50 µM) and on cell wall composition, structure, functional groups and Cr content, in addition to performing a comprehensive analysis of the transcriptome. Our results showed that the cell walls of shoots and roots accumulated 51.0% and 65.0% of the Cr, respectively. Furthermore, pectin in the cell wall bound 69.5%/90.2% of the Cr in the shoots/roots. Se-Mo interactions upregulated the expression levels of related genes encoding galacturonosyltransferase (GAUT), UTP-glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (UGP), and UDP-glucose-4-epimerase (GALE), involved in polysaccharide biosynthesis, thereby increasing pectin and cellulose levels. Moreover, combined treatment with Se and Mo increased the lignin content and cell wall thickness by upregulating the expression levels of genes encoding cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD), peroxidase (POX) and phenylalanine amino-lyase (PAL), involved in lignin biosynthesis. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy results showed that Se + Mo treatment (in combination) increased the number of carboxylic acid groups (-COOH) groups, thereby enhancing the Cr chelation ability. The results not only elucidate the molecular mechanism of action of Se-Mo interactions in mitigating Cr toxicity but also provide new insights for phytoremediation and food safety.

The origin of bi-dimensionality in plant root traits

Plant roots show extraordinary diversity in form and function in heterogeneous environments. Mounting evidence has shown global bi-dimensionality in root traits, the root economics spectrum (RES), and an orthogonal dimension describing mycorrhizal collaboration; however, the origin of the bi-dimensionality remains unresolved. Here, we propose that bi-dimensionality arises from the cylindrical geometry of roots, allometry between root cortex and stele, and independence between root cell wall thickness and cell number. Root geometry and mycorrhizal collaboration may both underlie the bi-dimensionality. Further, we emphasize why plant roots should be cylindrical rather than flat. Finally, we highlight the need to integrate organ-, cellular-, and molecular-level processes driving the bi-dimensionality in plant roots to fully understand plant diversity and functions.

The impacts of exogenous phosphorus on Cd absorption in perennial ryegrass root cell: Kinetic and mechanism study

Phosphorus (P) is critical to plants in metal-contaminated soils because it participates in various biochemical reactions during plant growth. However, the mechanisms of P in mitigating the toxicity of heavy metals to ryegrass root is still veiled. In this study, the physiological and biochemical dynamics of the ryegrass root under various cadmium (Cd) and P conditions were investigated in a hydroponic system. Cd stress decreased the length of the ryegrass root, but P application enhanced the root elongation to reduce the Cd concentration in the root. Both Cd and P dosages were positively correlated with hemicellulose 1 content, pectin content, and PME activity, while having a negative effect on cellulose content. Moreover, the addition of 80 mg L-1 P increased the contents of pectin and hemicellulose 1 by 2.5 and 5.8% even with 4 mg L-1 Cd. In addition, P supply increased pectin methylesterbase activity under Cd stress, which further changed the extra-cytoplasmic structures and cell wall composition. Thus, exogenous P promoted the immobilization of Cd onto the cell wall and protected protoplast primarily through indirectly regulating the binding capacity of the root cell wall for Cd.

Auxin is involved in cadmium accumulation in rice through controlling nitric oxide production and the ability of cell walls to bind cadmium

Although auxin has been linked to plants' responses to cadmium (Cd) stress, the exact mechanism is yet elusive. The objective of the current investigation was to determine the role and the mechanism of auxin in controlling rice's Cd accumulation. Rice roots with Cd stress have higher endogenous auxin levels, and exogenous auxin combined Cd treatment could reduce root cell wall's hemicellulose content when compared with Cd treatment alone, which in turn reduced its fixation of Cd, as well as decreased the expression of OsCd1 (a major facilitator superfamily gene), OsNRAMP1/5 (Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Protein 1/5), OsZIP5/9 (Zinc Transporter 5/9), and OsHMA2 (Heavy Metal ATPase 2) that participated in Cd uptake and root to shoot translocation. Furthermore, less Cd accumulated in the shoots as a result of auxin's impact in increasing the expression of OsCAL1 (Cadmium accumulation in Leaf 1), OsABCG36/OsPDR9 (G-type ATP-binding cassette transporter/Pleiotropic drug resistance 9), and OsHMA3, which were in charge of Cd efflux and sequestering into vacuoles, respectively. Additionally, auxin decreased endogenous nitric oxide (NO) levels and antioxidant enzyme activity, while treatment of a NO scavenger-cPTIO-reduced auxin's alleviatory effects. In conclusion, the rice's ability to tolerate Cd toxicity was likely increased by the auxin-accelerated cell wall Cd exclusion mechanism, a pathway that controlled by the buildup of NO.

Responses of microbial communities in rhizocompartments of king grass to phytoremediation of cadmium-contaminated soil

King grass has been recognized as a potential phytoremediation plant species due to its high biomass and resistance to heavy metals (HMs). However, the possible impacts of cadmium (Cd) contamination on rhizocompartments' microbial activities in association with king grass have not been extensively explored. The utilization of 16S rRNA gene and ITS sequencing was carried out to examine alterations in the bacterial and fungal communities in the rhizosphere and rhizoplane of king grass in response to low and high Cd stress. Results demonstrated that both bacterial and fungal communities' diversity and richness were negatively impacted by Cd stress, regardless of its concentration. However, evenness did not exhibit any significant response to either of the concentrations. Additionally, nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination demonstrated a significant difference (p < 0.001) in microbial communities under different treatments. The abundance of bacterial taxa such as Steroibacter, Nitrospira, Pseudoxanthomonas, Cellvirio, Phenylobacterium, Mycobacterium, Pirellula and Aquicella was adversely affected under Cd stress while Flavobacterium, Gemmata, Thiobacillus and Gemmatimonas showed no prominent response, indicating their resistance to Cd stress. Like that, certain fungal taxa for instance, Cladosporium, Cercophora, Acremonium, Mortierella, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Glomus and Sebacina were also highly reduced by low and high Cd stress. In contrast, Fusarium, Thanatephorus, Botrytis and Curvularia did not show any response to Cd stress. The identified taxa may have a crucial role in the growth of king grass under heavy metal contamination, making them promising candidates for developing bioinoculants to encourage plant performance and phytoremediation capability in HM-contaminated soils.

The adaptation of root cell wall pectin to copper toxicity in two citrus species differing in copper tolerance: remodeling and responding

Citrus species are prone to suffer from copper (Cu) toxicity because of improper application of Cu-based agrochemicals. Copper immobilization mediated by pectin methylesterase (PME) in the root cell wall (CW) is effective for Cu detoxification. However, the underlying mechanisms of the structural modification and stress responses of citrus root CW pectin to Cu toxicity have been less discussed. In the present study, seedlings of 'Shatian pummelo' (Citrus grandis L. Osbeck) and 'Xuegan' (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck), which differ in Cu tolerance, were irrigated with nutrient solution containing 0.5 (as control), 100, 300 or 500 μM Cu for 18 weeks in sandy culture or 24 h in hydroponics. At the end of treatments in the 18-week sandy culture, Cu toxicity on CW pectin content, Cu distribution, degree of pectin methylesterification (DPM) and the PME enzyme activity were discussed. At the genome-wide level, PME gene family was identified from the two citrus species, and qRT-PCR array of citrus PMEs under control and 300 μM Cu stress for 18 weeks were performed to screen the Cu-responsive PME genes. Moreover, the candidate genes that responded to Cu toxicity were further examined within 24 h. The results showed that Cu toxicity increased the root CW pectin content. The root CW pectin under Cu toxicity was remodeled by upregulation of the expression of the Cu-responsive PME genes followed by increasing PME activity, which mainly promoted low methylesterased pectin level and the Cu content on root CW pectin. Compared with C. sinensis, C. grandis root CW had a lower DPM and higher Cu content on the Cu-stressed root CW pectin, contributing to its higher Cu tolerance. Our present study provided theoretical evidence for root CW pectin remodeling in response to Cu toxicity of citrus species.

Multiple insights into lignin-mediated cadmium detoxification in rice (Oryza sativa)

Cadmium (Cd) is readily absorbed by rice and enters the food chain, posing a health risk to humans. A better understanding of the mechanisms of Cd-induced responses in rice will help in developing solutions to reduce Cd uptake in rice. Therefore, this research attempted to reveal the detoxification mechanisms of rice in response to Cd through physiological, transcriptomic and molecular approaches. The results showed that Cd stress restricted rice growth, led to Cd accumulation and H2O2 production, and resulted cell death. Transcriptomic sequencing revealed glutathione and phenylpropanoid were the major metabolic pathways under Cd stress. Physiological studies showed that antioxidant enzyme activities, glutathione and lignin contents were significantly increased under Cd stress. In response to Cd stress, q-PCR results showed that genes related to lignin and glutathione biosynthesis were upregulated, whereas metal transporter genes were downregulated. Further pot experiment with rice cultivars with increased and decreased lignin content confirmed the causal relationship between increased lignin and reduced Cd in rice. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of lignin-mediated detoxification mechanism in rice under Cd stress and explains the function of lignin in production of low-Cd rice to ensure human health and food safety.

Boron decreases cadmium accumulation in water spinach by enhancing cadmium retention in the root cell walls

Cadmium (Cd) contamination and boron (B) deficiency are two major challenges associated with the farmland soils in Southern China. Therefore, this study was conducted to examine the impacts of B supply on Cd accumulation in water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) using a cultivar (T308) with high Cd accumulation. The study further investigated the physiological mechanism behind the changes in Cd accumulation due to B supply. The findings revealed that B supply substantially reduced the Cd concentration in the leaves of water spinach by 41.20% and 37.16% under the Cd stress of 10 μM and 25 μM, respectively. Subcellular distribution of Cd showed that the Cd content as well as its proportion in root cell wall (RCW) increased significantly after B supply. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed significant enrichment of negatively charged groups (such as -OH, -COOH, and -NH2) in the RCW after B supply. Overall, B supply also enhanced covalently bound pectin (CSP) content as well as the Cd content linked with CSP under Cd stress. These observations revealed that B regulated the Cd chelation in RCW, thereby reducing the amassment of Cd in water spinach.

Transcriptomic and Functional Analyses of Two Cadmium Hyper-Enriched Duckweed Strains Reveal Putative Cadmium Tolerance Mechanisms

Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most toxic metals in the environment and exerts deleterious effects on plant growth and production. Duckweed has been reported as a promising candidate for Cd phytoremediation. In this study, the growth, Cd enrichment, and antioxidant enzyme activity of duckweed were investigated. We found that both high-Cd-tolerance duckweed (HCD) and low-Cd-tolerance duckweed (LCD) strains exposed to Cd were hyper-enriched with Cd. To further explore the underlying molecular mechanisms, a genome-wide transcriptome analysis was performed. The results showed that the growth rate, chlorophyll content, and antioxidant enzyme activities of duckweed were significantly affected by Cd stress and differed between the two strains. In the genome-wide transcriptome analysis, the RNA-seq library generated 544,347,670 clean reads, and 1608 and 2045 differentially expressed genes were identified between HCD and LCD, respectively. The antioxidant system was significantly expressed during ribosomal biosynthesis in HCD but not in LCD. Fatty acid metabolism and ethanol production were significantly increased in LCD. Alpha-linolenic acid metabolism likely plays an important role in Cd detoxification in duckweed. These findings contribute to the understanding of Cd tolerance mechanisms in hyperaccumulator plants and lay the foundation for future phytoremediation studies.

Abscisic acid (ABA) alleviates cadmium toxicity by enhancing the adsorption of cadmium to root cell walls and inducing antioxidant defense system of Cosmos bipinnatus

Cadmium (Cd) pollution is a global problem affecting soil ecology and plant growth. Abscisic acid (ABA) acts as a growth and stress hormone, regulates cell wall synthesis, and plays an important role in plant responses to stress. There are few studies on the mechanisms behind abscisic acid alleviation of cadmium stress in Cosmos bipinnatus, especially in regards to regulation of the root cell wall. This study examined the effects of different concentrations of abscisic acid at different concentrations of cadmium stress. Through adding 5 μmol/L and 30 μmol/L cadmium, followed by spraying 10 μmol/L and 40 μmol/L ABA in a hydroponic experiment, it was found that under two concentrations of cadmium stress, low concentration of ABA improved root cell wall polysaccharide, Cd, and uronic acid content. Especially in pectin, after the application of low concentration ABA, the cadmium concentration was significantly increased by 1.5 times and 1.2 times compared with the Cd concentration under Cd5 and Cd30 treatment alone, respectively. Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) demonstrated that cell wall functional groups such as -OH and -COOH were increased with exposure to ABA. Additionally, the exogenous ABA also increased expression of three kinds of antioxidant enzymes and plant antioxidants. The results of this study suggest that ABA could reduce Cd stress by increasing Cd accumulation, promoting Cd adsorption on the root cell wall, and activating protective mechanisms. This result could help promote application of C. bipinnatus for phytostabilization of cadmium-contaminated soil.

Piriformospora indica alter root-associated microbiome structure to enhance Artemisia annua L. tolerance to arsenic

Microorganisms in the rhizosphere are crucial allies for plant stress tolerance. Recent research suggests that by interacting with the rhizosphere microbiome, microorganisms can aid in the revegetation of soils contaminated with heavy metal(loid)s (HMs). However, it is unknown that how Piriformospora indica influences the rhizosphere microbiome to mitigate arsenic-toxicity in arsenic-enriched environments. Artemisia annua plants were grown in the presence or absence of P. indica and spiked with low (50) and high (150 µmol/L) concentrations of arsenic (As). After inoculation with P. indica, fresh weight increased by 37.7% and 10% in control and high concentration treated plants, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy showed that cellular organelles were severely damaged by As and even disappeared under high concentration. Furthermore, As was mostly accumulated by 5.9 and 18.1 mg/kg dry weight in the roots of inoculated plants treated with low and high concentrations of As, respectively. Additionally, 16 S and ITS rRNA gene sequencing were applied to analyze the rhizosphere microbial community structure of A. annua under different treatments. A significant difference was observed in microbial community structure under different treatments as revealed by non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination. The bacterial and fungal richness and diversity in the rhizosphere of inoculated plants were actively balanced and regulated by P. indica co-cultivation. Lysobacter and Steroidobacter were found to be the As-resistant bacterial genera. We conclude that P. indica inoculation could alter rhizosphere microecology, thereby mitigating As-toxicity without harming the environment.

Hydrogen peroxide mediates cadmium accumulation in the root of a high cadmium-accumulating rice (Oryza sativa L.) line

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is a vital signaling molecule in response to cadmium (Cd) stress in plants. However, the role of H₂O₂ on Cd accumulation in root of different Cd-accumulating rice lines remains unclear. Exogenous H₂O₂ and 4-hydroxy-TEMPO (H₂O₂ scavenger) were applied to investigate the physiological and molecular mechanisms of H₂O₂ on Cd accumulation in the root of a high Cd-accumulating rice line Lu527-8 through hydroponic experiments. Interestingly, it was found Cd concentration in the root of Lu527-8 increased significantly when exposed to exogenous H₂O₂, while reduced significantly when exposed to 4-hydroxy-TEMPO under Cd stress, proving the role of H₂O₂ in regulating Cd accumulation in Lu527-8. Lu527-8 showed more Cd and H₂O₂ accumulation in the roots, along with more Cd accumulation in cell wall and soluble fraction, than the normal rice line Lu527-4. In particular, more pectin accumulation, especially low demethylated pectin, was observed in the root of Lu527-8 when exposed to exogenous H₂O₂ under Cd stress, resulting in more negative functional groups with greater capacity to binding Cd in the root cell wall of Lu527-8. It indicated that H₂O₂-induced cell wall modification and vacuolar compartmentalization contributes greatly to more Cd accumulation in the root of the high Cd-accumulating rice line.

Contrasting Cd accumulation of Arabidopsis halleri populations: a role for (1→4)-β-galactan in pectin

Cadmium (Cd) accumulation is highly variable among Arabidopsis halleri populations. To identify cell wall (CW) components that contribute to the contrasting Cd accumulation between PL22-H (Cd-hyperaccumulator) and I16-E (Cd-excluder), Cd absorption capacity of CW polysaccharides, CW mono- and poly- saccharides contents and CW glycan profiles were compared between these two populations. PL22-H pectin contained 3-fold higher Cd concentration than I16-E pectin in roots, and (1→4)-β-galactan pectic epitope showed the biggest difference between PL22-H and I16-E. CW-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between PL22-H and I16-E were identified and corresponding A. thaliana mutants were phenotyped for Cd tolerance and accumulation. A higher Cd translocation was observed in GALACTAN SYNTHASE1 A. thaliana knockout and overexpressor mutants, which both showed a lengthening of the RG-I sidechains after Cd treatment, contrary to the wild-type. Overall, our results support an indirect role for (1→4)-β-galactan in Cd translocation, possibly by a joint effect of regulating the length of RG-I sidechains, the pectin structure and interactions between polysaccharides in the CW. The characterization of other CW-related DEGs between I16-E and PL22-H selected allowed to identify a possible role in Zn translocation for BIIDXI and LEUNIG-HOMOLOG genes, which are both involved in pectin modification.

Simultaneous mitigation of arsenic and cadmium accumulation in rice grains by foliar inhibitor with ZIF-8@Ge-132

Simultaneous mitigation of Arsenic (As) and Cadmium (Cd) in rice grains is hardly achieved with conventional soil treatments due to their opposite chemical behaviors in paddy soils. This study evaluates the effectiveness of a novel foliar inhibitor with germanium (Ge) -modified zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-8@Ge-132) in cooperative mitigation of As and Cd in rice grains in a As and Cd co-contaminated paddy field, and the effecting mechanisms are elucidated by a series of advanced techniques. The results showed that the grains inorganic As and Cd was remarkably decreased by 45 % and 66 % by the foliar spay of ZIF-8@Ge-132, respectively. ZIF-8@Ge-132 also reduced the As and Cd contents in rice tissues, except for Cd in leaves, where Cd content increased by 148 %. The image-based measurement of plant phenotypic traits and the elements of image analysis using Laser Ablation-ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS) and Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM) revealed that the possible mechanisms for the reduction of As and Cd in rice grains were as follows: (i) the thickening of the xylem in roots significantly retarded As and Cd absorption by rice plants. (ii) co-accumulation of Ge and Cd in the leaf vascular system likely contributed to the high Cd retention in rice leaves. (iii) antagonistic effects of Zn suppressed the uptake and transport of As in roots/leaves, resulting a lower As accumulation in rice grains.

The ignored risk: heavy metal pollution of medicine and food homologous substances

A survey was conducted to investigate the effects of cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), and copper (Cu) in medicine and food homologous substances (MFHs) on human health. Nine common and typical MFHs (Dendrobium, Bulbus lilii, Poria, Semen nelumbinis, Radix puerariae, Gardenia jasminoides, Hordeum vulgare L, Semen coicis, and Ganoderma Karst) in the form of medicinal slices ready for decoction were purchased from pharmacies. Five among the MFHs (Dendrobium, Bulbus lilii, Poria, Semen nelumbinis, and Radix puerariae) were further obtained from a local field as raw materials for comparison. The results showed that raw materials of MFHs collected from the field had higher contents of heavy metal and greater health risks than medicinal slices purchased from pharmacy. Generally, the heavy metal residues in MFHs of different medicinal parts were different, and MFHs from roots or stems had significantly higher contents of heavy metals than those from fruits or seeds. Most importantly, the contents of Cd in Bulbus lilii and As in wild Poria from field were higher than the contents described in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (ChP). Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk assessments revealed that Poria from field had larger non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks to human health; Bulbus lilii showed no non-carcinogenic risk but exhibited carcinogenic risks, whereas Cr showed carcinogenic risks in all samples. Given that MFHs are incorporated in regular foods, care should be taken to minimize health hazards caused by heavy metals to human. This study creates awareness on the safety issues associated with MFHs, and provides basic information for establishing the maximum allowable contents of medicinal and food substances in normal diets.

Effect of potassium intake on cadmium transporters and root cell wall biosynthesis in sweet potato

Large areas of farmland soil in southern China are deficient in potassium (K) and are contaminated with cadmium (Cd). Previously, we suggested that the K supplementation could reduce Cd accumulation in sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam). In the present study, we investigated the underlying physiological and molecular mechanisms. A hydroponic experiment with different K and Cd treatments was performed to compare the transcriptome profile and the cell wall structure in the roots of sweet potato using RNA sequencing, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results showed that K supply inhibits the expressions of IRT1 and YSL3, which are responsible for root Cd uptake under Cd exposure. Furthermore, the expressions of COPT5 and Nramp3 were downregulated by K, which increased Cd retention in the root vacuoles. The upregulation of POD, CAD, INT1 and SUS by K contributed to lignin and cellulose biosynthesis and thickening of root xylem cell wall, which further reduced Cd translocation to the shoot. In addition, K affected the expressions of LHT, ACS, TPS and TPP associated with the production of ethylene and trehalose, which involved in plant resistance to Cd toxicity. In general, K application could decrease the uptake and translocation of Cd in sweet potatoes by regulating the expression of genes associated with Cd transporters and root cell wall components.

FeCl3 and Fe2(SO4)3 differentially reduce Cd uptake and accumulation in Polish wheat (Triticum polonicum L.) seedlings by exporting Cd from roots and limiting Cd binding in the root cell walls

Wheat grown in cadmium (Cd)-contaminated soils easily accumulates more Cd in edible parts than the Chinese safety limit (0.1 mg/kg). FeCl₃ and Fe₂(SO₄)₃ have been used to extract Cd from Cd-contaminated soils. Thus, we hypothesized that FeCl₃ and Fe₂(SO₄)₃, used as iron (Fe) fertilizers, can reduce Cd uptake and accumulation in wheat. Here, a hydroponic experiment was performed with three FeCl₃ and Fe₂(SO₄)₃ concentrations under 80 μM CdCl₂ stress on dwarf Polish wheat (Triticum polonicum L., 2n = 4x = 28, AABB) seedlings. Compared with Fe deficiency, FeCl₃ and Fe₂(SO₄)₃ additions competitively reduced Cd concentrations. The reductions were not associated with changes in dry weight and root morphological parameters. FeCl₃ and Fe₂(SO₄)₃ additions reduced Cd concentrations in the following order from smallest to largest reduction: 25 μM Fe₂(SO₄)₃ < 200 μM FeCl₃ < 50 μM FeCl₃ < 100 μM Fe₂(SO₄)₃. Investigation of subcellular distributions showed that the four Fe fertilizers differentially reduced Cd binding in the root cell walls and enhanced root sucrose and trehalose. Cd chemical form analysis revealed that Fe fertilizer addition also differentially reduced root F_E, F_W, and F_NaCl. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that addition of FeCl₃ and Fe₂(SO₄)₃ differentially up-regulated several genes that hydrolyze cell wall polysaccharides and metal transporter genes for Cd uptake (IRT1 and CAX19) and export (ZIP1, ABCG11, ABCG14, ABCG28, ABCG37, ABCG44, and ABCG48) reducing Cd uptake and accumulation. Our results demonstrated that FeCl₃ and Fe₂(SO₄)₃ can reduce Cd accumulation in wheat, and 50 μM FeCl₃ is the most effective treatment.

Characterization of cadmium accumulation mechanism between eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) cultivars

Excessive cadmium (Cd) accumulation in vegetables due to farmland pollution constitutes a serious threat to human health. Eggplant has a tendency to accumulate Cd. To investigate the mechanism of the differences in Cd accumulation levels between high-Cd (BXGZ) and low-Cd (MYQZ) eggplant cultivar, physiological and biochemical indicators and mRNA expression of eggplant were examined using photosynthetic apparatus, biochemical test kits, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and transcriptome sequencing, etc. The results of biochemical test kits and FTIR revealed that MYQZ enhanced pectin methylesterase (PME) activity, and lignin and pectin content in the root cell wall, which was associated with the upregulation of PME, cinnamyl-alcohol dehydrogenase and peroxidase (PODs). Higher levels of cysteine and glutathione (GSH) contents and upregulation of genes associated with sulfur metabolism, as well as higher expression of ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABCs), cation exchangers (CAX) and metal tolerance proteins (MTPs) were observed in MYQZ. In BXGZ, the higher stomatal density and stomatal aperture as well as higher levels of Ca²⁺ binding protein-1 (PCaP1) and aquaporins and lower levels of A2-type cyclins (CYCA2-1) are consistent with an enhanced transpiration rate in BXGZ. Furthermore, a more developed root system was shown to be associated with higher levels of auxin response factor (ARF19), GATA transcription factors (GATA4, 5 and 11) and auxin efflux carrier component (PIN5) in BXGZ. In conclusion, highly active PME, and higher levels of lignin and pectin in MYQZ are expected to reduce Cd toxicity, while Cd translocation can be inhibited with the help of ABC and other Cd transporters. As for BXGZ, the uptake and translocation of Cd were enhanced by the developed root system and stronger transpiration.

Molecular insights into lignin biosynthesis on cadmium tolerance: Morphology, transcriptome and proteome profiling in Salix matsudana

Soil pollution caused by cadmium (Cd) is a serious concern. Phytoremediation is a popular technology in the remediation of Cd-contaminated soil. Salix matsudana var. matsudana f. umbraculifera Rehd. has been characterized as a high Cd-accumulating and tolerant willow (HCW). Here, transcriptome and proteome profiling, along with morphology analyses were performed to explore molecular cross-talk involved in Cd tolerance. Our results showed that 73%- 83% of the Cd in roots accumulated in the cell walls and root xylem cell walls were significantly thickened. From transcriptome and proteome analysis, a total of 153 up-regulated differentially-expressed genes and 655 up-regulated differentially-expressed proteins were found in common between two comparison groups (1 d and 4 d vs. respective control). Furthermore, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis was identified as a key pathway in response to Cd stress. In this pathway, lignin biosynthesis genes or proteins were significantly up-regulated, and lignin content increased significantly in roots under Cd stress. Two Cd-induced genes cinnamoyl-CoA reductase 1 (SmCCR1) and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase 7 (SmCAD7) from HCW increased the lignin content and enhanced Cd tolerance in transgenic poplar calli. These results lay the foundation for further clarifying the molecular mechanisms of Cd tolerance in woody plants.

Toxic effects of microplastics in plants depend more by their surface functional groups than just accumulation contents

Differentially charged microplastics (MPs) engendered by plastic aging (e.g., plastic film) widely existed in the agricultural ecosystem, yet minimal was known about the toxic effects of MPs on plants and their absorption and accumulation characteristics. Root absorption largely determined the migration and accumulation risks of MPs in the soil-crop food chain. Here, five types of MPs exposure experiments of leaf lettuce were implemented to simulate root absorption by hydroponics. MPs exposure caused different degrees of growth inhibition, root lignification, root cell apoptosis, and oxidative stress responses; accelerated chlorophyll decomposition and hampered normal electron transfer within the PSII photosystem. Moreover, the uptake of essential elements by roots was inhibited to varying degrees due to the pore blockage in the cell wall and the hetero-aggregation of opposite charges after MPs exposure. MPs exposure observably up-regulated the organic metabolic pathways in roots, thus affecting MPs mobility and absorption through the electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions between the root exudations and MPs. Importantly, MPs penetrated the root extracellular cortex into the stele and were transported to the shoots by transpiration through xylem vessels based on confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy images. Quantitative analysis of MPs indicated that their toxic effects on plants were determined to a greater extent by the types of surface functional groups than just their accumulation contents, that is, MPs were confirmed edible risks through crop food chain transfer, but bioaccumulation varied by surface functional groups.

Effects of Cadmium on Root Morpho-Physiology of Durum Wheat

Durum wheat [Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum (Desf.) Husn.] can accumulate a high level of Cd in grains with a significant variability depending on cultivars. Understanding how this toxic element is distributed in cereal tissues and grains is essential to improve the nutritional quality of cereal-based products. The main objective of this work was to investigate roots of durum wheat plants (cv. Iride) exposed to different Cd concentrations (0.5 and 5.0 μM) to identify the mechanisms involved in Cd management. Results showed that the root morphology was altered by Cd treatment both at macroscopic (increased number of tips and primary root length) and ultrastructural levels (cell membrane system damaged, cell walls thickened and enriched in suberin). On the other side, Cd was localized in vesicles and in cell walls, and the metal colocalized with the phytosiderophore nicotianamine (NA). Overall, data suggest that Cd is chelated by NA and then compartmentalized, through vesicular trafficking, in the root thickened walls reducing Cd translocation to the aerial organs of the plant.

Transcriptomic analyses of sweet potato in response to Cd exposure and protective effects of K on Cd-induced physiological alterations

We aimed to understand the molecular mechanism of differential cadmium (Cd) accumulation in two cultivars of sweet potato and to clarify the effects of potassium (K) supply on Cd accumulation. Comparative transcriptomes were employed to identify key genes and pathways using a low-Cd (N88) and a high-Cd cultivar (X16) in a pot experiment. The antioxidant capacity and cell wall components of root tips were analyzed to account for the effect of K regulating Cd accumulation in N88 via a hydroponic experiment. Transcriptome analysis revealed that 29 and 20 genes were differentially expressed in N88 and X16, respectively, when comparing the control with the two Cd treatments. X16 had more differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 2649 common up-regulated and 3173 common down-regulated than N88 in any treatment. GO and KEGG analyses showed that the DEGs were assigned and enriched in different pathways. Some critical DEGs such as PDR, HMA3, COPT5, CAX3, GAUT, CCR, AUX1, CAT, SOD, GSR, and GST were identified. The DEGs were involved in pathways including heavy metal transport or detoxification, cell wall biosynthesis, plant hormone signal transduction, and glutathione metabolism. Additionally, K supply substantially decreased Cd accumulation and reactive oxygen species production and promoted the production of cellulose, pectin and lignin in the root tips when exposed to Cd. Several critical DEGs associated with heavy metal transport and cell wall biosynthesis were responsible for the difference of Cd accumulation between the two cultivars. Application of K could help decrease Cd accumulation in sweet potato.

Comparative cytology combined with transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of Solanum nigrum L. in response to Cd toxicity

Cadmium (Cd) triggers molecular alterations in plants, perturbs metabolites and damages plant growth. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanism underlying the Cd tolerance in plants is necessary for assessing the persistent environmental impact of Cd. In this study, Solanum nigrum was selected as the test plant to investigate changes in biomass, Cd translocation, cell ultrastructure, metabolites and genes under hydroponic conditions. The results showed that the plant biomass was significantly decreased under Cd stress, and the plant has a stronger Cd transport capability. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that increased Cd concentration gradually damaged the plant organs (roots, stems and leaves) cell ultrastructure, as evidenced by swollen chloroplasts and deformed cell walls. Additionally, metabolomics analyses revealed that Cd stress mainly affected seven metabolism pathways, including 19 differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs). Moreover, 3908 common differentially expressed genes (DEGs, 1049 upregulated and 2859 downregulated) were identified via RNA-seq among five Cd treatments. Meanwhile, conjoint analysis found several DEGs and DEMs, including laccase, peroxidase, D-fructose, and cellobiose etc., are associated with cell wall biosynthesis, implying the cell wall biosynthesis pathway plays a critical role in Cd detoxification. Our comprehensive investigation using multiple approaches provides a molecular-scale perspective on plant response to Cd stress.

Apoplastic histochemical features of plant root walls that may facilitate ion uptake and retention

We used brightfield and epifluorescence microscopy, as well as permeability tests, to investigate the apoplastic histochemical features of plant roots associated with ion hyperaccumulation, invasion, and tolerance of oligotrophic conditions. In hyperaccumulator species with a hypodermis (exodermis absent), ions penetrated the root apex, including the root cap. By contrast, in non-hyperaccumulator species possessing an exodermis, ions did not penetrate the root cap. In vivo, the lignified hypodermis blocked the entry of ions into the cortex, while root exodermis absorbed ions and restricted them to the cortex. The roots of the hyperaccumulators Pteris vittata and Cardamine hupingshanensis, as well as the aquatic invasives Alternanthera philoxeroides, Eichhornia crassipes, and Pistia stratiotes, contained lignin and pectins. These compounds may trap and store ions before hypodermis maturation, facilitating ion hyperaccumulation and retention in the apoplastic spaces of the roots. These apoplastic histochemical features were consistent with certain species-specific characters, including ion hyperaccumulation, invasive behaviors in aquatic environments, or tolerance of oligotrophic conditions. We suggest that apoplastic histochemical features of the root may act as invasion mechanisms, allowing these invasive aquatic plants to outcompete indigenous plants for ions.

Integrated glycolysis and pyrolysis process for multiple utilization and cadmium collection of hyperaccumulator Sedum alfredii

Phytoremediation is a cost-effective and environmentally-friendly method to treat cadmium (Cd) contaminated soils, however, there is still a lack of safe disposal methods of harvested hyperaccumulators. In this study, by integrating glycolysis and pyrolysis, we investigated the possibility of bioproduct production and Cd collection from the hyperaccumulator Sedum alfredii. By means of acid-alkali pretreatment, the degree of cellulose polymerization was reduced by 36.24% while the surface accessibility was increased by 115.80%, resulting in a bioethanol yield of 9.29%. Meanwhile, 99.22% of total Cd of biomass could be reclaimed by collecting H₂SO₄-pretreatment waste. The saccharification residue was subsequently modified by NaOH-pretreatment-filtrate and converted into biochar at 500 °C which possessed a maximum Cd²⁺ sorption capacity of 60.52 mg g^-1 based on the Langmuir model. Furthermore, sustainability analysis indicated that the economic input of this process is acceptable when considering its good environmental benefits. Taken together, our study provides a strategy for simultaneous bioethanol and biochar production during Cd collection from the hyperaccumulator S. alfredii, which could be a promising alternative for the suitable treatment of metal-enriched plants.

Heterogeneity of humic/fulvic acids derived from composts explains the differences in accelerating soil Cd-hyperaccumulation by Sedum alfredii

The hyperaccumulating mechanism concerning heavy metal activation or passivation and plant response triggered by fulvic acid (FA) and humic acid (HA) recruitments are investigated herein. We carefully examine the Cd activation effect by various FA and HA, tracing from pig, goat, and duck manure composts to straw compost and commercial materials (i.e., PC, GC, DC, SC, and CM), as well as their roles in plant growth promotion and Cd uptake. Our results indicate that due to the decrease of soil pH and their multiple functional groups, the contents of available Cd (AE-Cd) increased by 4.3-4.8% and 3.6-6.3% when all FA and HA sources were applied for 30 days. A 13.1-19.9% increase in AE-Cd was observed when CFA, DFA, and PFA were applied for five days, and a 9.5% increment was found when PHA was applied for 10 days. In the pot experiment, the Cd accumulation in plants increased by 2.78 and 2.17 folds with PFA and PHA applications, respectively, compared to the blank control group. This result can be attributed to the stimulative effects of the simultaneous Sedum alfredii growth and Cd phytoavailability. Notably, the Cd accumulation increased by 2.26 times with the SFA amendment due to the predominant stimulation effect to the phytoavailable Cd rather than plant growth. However, slight inhibitory effects were observed upon plant growth or Cd uptake, which led to the reduction of the Cd accumulation with DHA, SHA, and CHA employments. Consistently, the corresponding soil Cd removal efficiencies were 43.5% and 34.6% with PFA and PHA, respectively, which hold abundant O- and N-containing groups. Our research aims to gain insights into the ternary interaction in the presence of heavy metal, humic substances, and S. alfredii to simultaneously accelerate Cd activation and hyperaccumulation.

Characterization of cadmium accumulation in the cell walls of leaves in a low-cadmium rice line and strengthening by foliar silicon application

Cadmium (Cd) remobilization in leaves is affected by whether Cd is stored in nonlabile subcellular compartments, which might be regulated by silicon (Si) application. However, the underlying mechanism is still far from being completely understood. In this research, the Cd distribution pattern in leaves and a Cd-binding characterization in the cell wall of the low-Cd rice line YaHui2816 were investigated through one hydroponic experiment with 10 μM Cd in solutions. Foliar Si application was further adopted to explore its influence on the Cd accumulation in the cell walls of leaves in YaHui2816. Most of the Cd (69.4%) was distributed in the cell walls of YaHui2816 leaves, whereas the isolated cell walls of leaves from YaHui2816 exhibited a lower capacity for Cd chemisorption than the contrasting line C268A, which was resulted from its fewer relative peak areas of functional groups in the cell wall, such as carboxyl CO and OH stretching. Foliar Si application significantly increased the Cd concentration in leaves and various cell wall fractions (pectin, hemicellulose 1 and residue) by 191% and 137-160%, respectively. RNA-seq analysis revealed that foliar Si application depressed the expression of the metal transporters OsZIP7 and OsZIP8, up-regulated the expression of genes participating in the glutathione metabolism and the cellulose synthesis. Overall, the influence of foliar Si application on Cd-accumulation in the cell wall of leaves in a low-Cd rice line was demonstrated in this research, which inspires further avenues to ensure the food safety of rice grains.

Salicylic acid reduces cadmium (Cd) accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa L.) by regulating root cell wall composition via nitric oxide signaling

The effects of salicylic acid (SA) on cadmium (Cd) accumulation, Cd subcellular distribution, cell wall composition and Cd adsorption in Cd-stressed rice seedlings were examined. The interaction between SA and nitric oxide (NO) signaling in regulating cell wall composition under Cd exposure was also investigated. Our results showed that 5 μmol·L^-1 Cd treatment significantly decreased plant height, root length and plant dry weight by 40.1%, 46.1% and 21.3% (p < 0.05), respectively, and the inhibitory effects of Cd on the growth parameters were alleviated by exogenous SA. Application of SA remarkably decreased Cd concentrations in roots and shoots of rice seedlings by 48.0% and 19.6%, respectively, and increased the distribution ratio of Cd in the root cell wall fraction (from 35.7% to 40.6%) compared with Cd treatment alone. The reduced Cd accumulation in rice plants could be attributed to that SA application promoted pectin synthesis and demethylesterification, thereby increasing Cd deposition in the root cell wall. Moreover, SA application promoted lignin biosynthesis to strengthen the cell wall and prevent Cd from entering the root cells. In addition, NO might be involved in SA-induced pectin synthesis, pectin demethylesterification and lignin biosynthesis as a downstream signaling molecule, contributing to reduced Cd accumulation in Cd-stressed rice seedlings. The results provide deep insights into the mechanisms of exogenous SA action in reducing Cd accumulation in rice plants.

Boron application mitigates Cd toxicity in leaves of rice by subcellular distribution, cell wall adsorption and antioxidant system

Cadmium (Cd) is a hazardous heavy metal and some of its negative effects include inhibition of rice growth, while also accumulates in the rice grains. Boron (B) has been implicated in mitigating Cd toxicity. Nevertheless, a few studies have been performed up to now to evaluate whether B could encourage Cd tolerance in rice by regulating Cd adsorption on cell walls (CW) in leaves of rice. The current experiment used different concentrations of B (0, 20, and 30 µM) along with 50 µM Cd to rice seedlings. The results indicate that single treatment of Cd significantly inhibited root and shoot growth and caused leaf chlorosis. However, B application at 20, and 30 µM reduced Cd concentrations in the roots by 66% and 77%, and in shoots by 72% and 83%, respectively, and increased plant development. Boron supply at 30 µM increased Cd in leaf CW fraction by 79% and decreased Cd by 64% in the organelle fraction. Moreover, B addition regulated the antioxidant system and decreased malonaldehyde contents (45%) in rice leaves. The present study demonstrates that B reduces Cd translocation and facilitates Cd adsorption on CW and regulates an efficient antioxidant system in rice leaves.

Polyaspartic acid alleviates cadmium toxicity in rapeseed leaves by affecting cadmium translocation and cell wall fixation of cadmium

Polyaspartic acid (PASP) is a macromolecule compound with carboxylic acid side chains which is polymerized by L-aspartic acid, has been used as a biodegradable and environmentally-friendly chelating agent to enhance the phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils. Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic element for plant growth, productivity, and food security. To reveal the responses of PASP to plant physiology and morphology under Cd stress, we comprehensively analyzed soil characteristics, cell ultrastructure, reactive oxygen species (ROS), antioxidant enzymes, Cd uptake, transport, subcellular distribution, cell wall compositions, and their Cd chelating capacity in rapeseed. The results showed PASP increased the content of total N, total P, and available P in soil by 3.4%, 28.6%, and 39.8%, respectively, but did not change soil pH and available Cd. Meanwhile, PASP promoted dry mass accumulation and increased photosynthetic pigment content in rapeseed leaves by maintaining the chloroplast structure. Lower malondialdehyde (MDA) content and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) accumulation and activated antioxidant enzymes in leaves indicate that PASP contributed to relieving Cd-induced oxidative damage to cells of rapeseed leaves. The results indicated that PASP application increased the Cd distribution ratio in root cell walls from 47.4% to 62.3% and decreased the Cd content in xylem sap by 37.8%, which ultimately reduced Cd reallocation in leaves. Additionally, higher pectin content and Cd in pectin resulted in higher Cd retention in leaf cell walls while reducing its concentration in the organelle fraction. The results indicated that 0.3% PASP effectively alleviated Cd stress in rapeseed leaves by inhibiting Cd transportation from roots, activating antioxidant enzymes to scavenge ROS, and promoting Cd chelation by cell wall pectin in leaves.