1
|
Yang T, Nowack B. Formation of nanoparticles during accelerated UV degradation of fleece polyester textiles. NANOIMPACT 2024; 35:100520. [PMID: 38906250 DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2024.100520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
Micro- and nanoplastics have emerged as critical pollutants in various ecosystems, posing potential environmental and human health risks. Washing of polyester textiles has been identified as one of the sources of nanoplastics. However, other stages of the textile life cycle may also release nanoparticles. This study aimed to examine nanoparticle release during UV degradation of polyester textiles under controlled and real-world conditions. Fleece polyester textiles were weathered under simulated sunlight for up to two months, either in air or submerged in water. We conducted bi-weekly SEM image analyses and quantified released nanoparticles using nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). At week 0, the fiber surface appeared smooth after prewashing. In the air group, nanoparticles appeared on the fiber surface after UV-exposure. In the group of textiles submerged in water, the surfaces developed more pits over time. The cumulative nanoparticle emission from the weathered textiles ranged from 1.4 × 1011 to 4.0 × 1011 particles per gram of fabric in the air group and from 1.6 × 1011 to 4.4 × 1011 particles per gram of fabric in the water group over two months. The predominant particle size fell into the 100 to 200 nm range. The estimated mass of the released nanoparticles was 0.06-0.26 g per gram of fabric, which is lower than the amount released during the washing of new textiles. Additionally, Scanning Transmission X-ray Microscopy (STXM) images indicated that the weathered nanoparticles underwent oxidation. Overall, the research offers valuable insights into nanoparticle formation and release from polyester textiles during UV degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tong Yang
- Technology and Society Laboratory, Empa - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland; Department of Civil Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0C5, Canada.
| | - Bernd Nowack
- Technology and Society Laboratory, Empa - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jansen MAK, Andrady AL, Bornman JF, Aucamp PJ, Bais AF, Banaszak AT, Barnes PW, Bernhard GH, Bruckman LS, Busquets R, Häder DP, Hanson ML, Heikkilä AM, Hylander S, Lucas RM, Mackenzie R, Madronich S, Neale PJ, Neale RE, Olsen CM, Ossola R, Pandey KK, Petropavlovskikh I, Revell LE, Robinson SA, Robson TM, Rose KC, Solomon KR, Andersen MPS, Sulzberger B, Wallington TJ, Wang QW, Wängberg SÅ, White CC, Young AR, Zepp RG, Zhu L. Plastics in the environment in the context of UV radiation, climate change and the Montreal Protocol: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2023. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2024; 23:629-650. [PMID: 38512633 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-024-00552-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
This Assessment Update by the Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) considers the interactive effects of solar UV radiation, global warming, and other weathering factors on plastics. The Assessment illustrates the significance of solar UV radiation in decreasing the durability of plastic materials, degradation of plastic debris, formation of micro- and nanoplastic particles and accompanying leaching of potential toxic compounds. Micro- and nanoplastics have been found in all ecosystems, the atmosphere, and in humans. While the potential biological risks are not yet well-established, the widespread and increasing occurrence of plastic pollution is reason for continuing research and monitoring. Plastic debris persists after its intended life in soils, water bodies and the atmosphere as well as in living organisms. To counteract accumulation of plastics in the environment, the lifetime of novel plastics or plastic alternatives should better match the functional life of products, with eventual breakdown releasing harmless substances to the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcel A K Jansen
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Anthony L Andrady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Janet F Bornman
- Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
| | | | - Alkiviadis F Bais
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anastazia T Banaszak
- Unidad Académica Sistemas Arrecifales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Puerto Morelos, Mexico
| | - Paul W Barnes
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environment Program, Loyola University New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | | | - Laura S Bruckman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Rosa Busquets
- Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kingston University London, Kingston Upon Thames, UK
| | | | - Mark L Hanson
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | | | - Samuel Hylander
- Centre for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Robyn M Lucas
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, College of Health and Medicine, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Roy Mackenzie
- Centro Universitario Cabo de Hornos, Universidad de Magallanes, Puerto Williams, Chile
- Millennium Institute Biodiversity of Antarctic and Subantarctic Ecosystems BASE, Santiago, Chile
- Cape Horn International Center CHIC, Puerto Williams, Chile
| | - Sasha Madronich
- UV-B Monitoring and Research Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Patrick J Neale
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, USA
| | - Rachel E Neale
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
- School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Catherine M Olsen
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Rachele Ossola
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | | | - Irina Petropavlovskikh
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- Ozone and Water Vapor Division, NOAA ESRL Global Monitoring Laboratory, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Laura E Revell
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Sharon A Robinson
- Securing Antarctica's Environmental Future, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - T Matthew Robson
- UK National School of Forestry, University of Cumbria, Ambleside Campus, Ambleside, UK
- Organismal & Evolutionary Ecology, Viikki Plant Science Centre, Faculty of Biological & Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kevin C Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | - Keith R Solomon
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Mads P Sulbæk Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, Northridge, CA, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Barbara Sulzberger
- Retired From Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dubendorf, Switzerland
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Qing-Wei Wang
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China
| | - Sten-Åke Wängberg
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | | | - Richard G Zepp
- ORD/CEMM, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Liping Zhu
- State Key Lab for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zuo C, Li Y, Chen Y, Jiang J, Qiu W, Chen Q. Leaching of heavy metals from polyester microplastic fibers and the potential risks in simulated real-world scenarios. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 461:132639. [PMID: 37778306 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Heavy metals have been incorporated as additives into synthetic textiles to enhance their functional properties. However, these fibers are susceptible to shedding due to mechanical wear, and the release of heavy metals from microplastic fibers (MFs) remains largely uncharacterized. Therefore, this study sought to quantify the levels of heavy metals in textiles, evaluate their leaching capabilities under various scenarios, and ultimately assess the potential health risks associated with MFs ingestion. First, we determined the metal content in eight commonly used polyester textiles. Subsequently, we estimated the metal leaching capacities of specific MFs sourced from carpets, curtains, sweaters, and scarves in freshwater, human saliva, human lung fluid, and fish gastric fluid at distinct time intervals. The results indicated that carpets contained the highest amount of total metals, with a concentration of 218 ± 8 mg/kg. Ultraviolet weathering, coupled with longer exposure durations, led to surface coarsening of MFs, which may be the primary reason for the enhanced leaching of metals in freshwater. Furthermore, our findings revealed that carbonyl index was unsuitable for characterizing aging because polyester inherently contains carbonyl groups. Instead, the O/C ratio emerged as a more suitable indicator. The leached concentrations and percentages of metals from MFs exhibited the following order in biofluids: Sb>Mn>Cr and Cr>Mn>Pb in biofluids, respectively. Finally, the estimated daily intake of metals was significantly below the tolerable thresholds (0.0014-0.14 mg/kg/d for fish and 0.0036-1.0 mg/kg/d for humans), indicating a negligible risk of heavy metal exposure through MFs for both fish and humans. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATION: In recent years, the ecological risks posed by heavy metal contaminants loaded onto microplastic fibers have become an increasing concern. Therefore, our study sought to characterize the accumulation of heavy metals on plastic fabrics and the potential for these loaded heavy metals to be released when microplastic fibers originating from these fabrics enter freshwater environments and interact with organisms. This vector-like behavior underscores the importance of investigating the ecological hazards associated with microplastic fibers carrying contaminants in both environmental and organismal contexts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chencheng Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Yue Li
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Yuye Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Jing Jiang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Wenhui Qiu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil and Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, 1088 Xueyuan Avenue, Nanshan District, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Qiqing Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; Yangtze Delta Estuarine Wetland Ecosystem Observation and Research Station, Ministry of Education & Shanghai Science and Technology Committee, Shanghai 200241, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Chen R, Zhao X, Wu X, Wang J, Wang X, Liang W. Research progress on occurrence characteristics and source analysis of microfibers in the marine environment. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 198:115834. [PMID: 38061148 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Synthetic microfiber pollution is a growing concern in the marine environment. However, critical issues associated with microfiber origins in marine environments have not been resolved. Herein, the potential sources of marine microfibers are systematically reviewed. The obtained results indicate that surface runoffs are primary contributors that transport land-based microfibers to oceans, and the breakdown of larger fiber plastic waste due to weathering processes is also a notable secondary source of marine microfibers. Additionally, there are three main approaches for marine microplastic source apportionment, namely, anthropogenic source classification, statistical analysis, and numerical simulations based on the Lagrangian particle tracking method. These methods establish the connections between characteristics, transport pathways and sources of microplastics, which provides new insights to further conduct microfiber source apportionment. This study helps to better understand sources analysis and transport pathways of microfibers into oceans and presents a scientific basis to further control microfiber pollution in marine environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rouzheng Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 10012, China
| | - Xiaoli Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 10012, China.
| | - Xiaowei Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 10012, China
| | - Junyu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 10012, China
| | - Xia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 10012, China
| | - Weigang Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 10012, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Letwin NV, Gillespie AW, Ijzerman MM, Kudla YM, Csajaghy JD, Prosser RS. Characterizing the Microplastic Content of Biosolids in Southern Ontario, Canada. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2023. [PMID: 38116985 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
The application of biosolids to agricultural land has been identified as a major pathway of microplastic (MP) pollution to the environment. Very little research, however, has been done on the MP content of biosolids within Canada. Fifteen biosolid samples from different treatment processes (liquid, dewatered, pelletized, and alkali-stabilized) were collected from 11 sources across southern Ontario to quantify and characterize the MP load within them. All samples exhibited MP concentrations ranging from 188 200 (±24 161) to 512 000 (±28 571) MPs/kg dry weight and from 4122 (±231) to 453 746 (±38 194) MPs/kg wet weight. Field amendment of these biosolids can introduce up to 3.73 × 106 to 4.12 × 108 MP/ha of agricultural soil. There was no significant difference in the MP concentrations of liquid, dewatered, and pelletized samples; but a reduction in MP content was observed in alkali-stabilized biosolids. Fragments composed 57.6% of the MPs identified, while 36.7% were fibers. In addition, MPs showed an exponential increase in abundance with decreasing size. Characterization of MPs confirmed that polyester was the most abundant, while polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyacrylamide, and polyurethane were present across the majority of biosolid samples. The results of the present study provide an estimate of the potential extent of MP contamination to agricultural fields through the amendment of biosolids. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;00:1-14. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas V Letwin
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Adam W Gillespie
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Moira M Ijzerman
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Yaryna M Kudla
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joel D Csajaghy
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ryan S Prosser
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Shi Y, Huang H, Zheng L, Tian Y, Gong Z, Wang J, Li W, Gao S. Releases of microplastics and chemicals from nonwoven polyester fabric-based polyurethane synthetic leather by photoaging. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 902:166584. [PMID: 37634718 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
The nonwoven PET fabrics are chemically, mechanically and thermally treated fiber aggregate without weaving, knitting or braiding, which could be used as a base to make polyurethane (PU) synthetic leather through a series of processing. Our research systematically compared the photoaging behaviors of pure non-woven PET base fabric (NPET-P) and PU synthetic leather (nonwoven PET-base fabrics with PU coating, NPET-U), and their possibilities for microplastic fibers (MPFs) generation and chemical transformation in water. NPET-U was photoaged to a higher oxidation degree with higher O/C ratios and more distinct changes in chemical structures. The amount of MPFs released from NPET-U (1.98 × 107 g/fibers) was significantly lower than that from NPET-P (4.76 × 107 g/fibers) after 360 h light irradiation (p value <0.05) with a slower degradation rate and delayed MPFs release. The lengths and diameters of released MPFs from NPET-U varied within a smaller range than that from NPET-P exposed to UV light irradiation. Natural sunlight aging of fabrics for 365 days was found to be equivalent to approximately 85.3-127.2 h UV aging in the laboratory, which indicated the lab accelerated experiments was extraordinarily intense to simulate natural sunlight aging. Furthermore, abundant calcium and sulfur-contained chemicals were detected in original fabrics and the leachate of 360 h light-aged fabrics using the inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES). The organic components of the leachate were separated according to their molecular weight with the changes of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), and the UV response over aging time. UV stimulation aggravated the role of plastic polymers as disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors. Nevertheless, although NPET-U could produce more nitrogen-contained chemicals, it had similar formation potentials of nitrogen-containing DBPs as NPET-P. The discussion lucubrated the potential risks of the production of MPFs and chemical release in the leachate with regard to combined plastic pollution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanqi Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Hexinyue Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Lezhou Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Yechao Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Zhimin Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Jiahao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Wentao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Shixiang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Chen Q, Shi G, Revell LE, Zhang J, Zuo C, Wang D, Le Ru EC, Wu G, Mitrano DM. Long-range atmospheric transport of microplastics across the southern hemisphere. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7898. [PMID: 38036501 PMCID: PMC10689495 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43695-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Airborne microplastics (MPs) can undergo long range transport to remote regions. Yet there is a large knowledge gap regarding the occurrence and burden of MPs in the marine boundary layer, which hampers comprehensive modelling of their global atmospheric transport. In particular, the transport efficiency of MPs with different sizes and morphologies remains uncertain. Here we show a hemispheric-scale analysis of airborne MPs along a cruise path from the mid-Northern Hemisphere to Antarctica. We present the inaugural measurements of MPs concentrations over the Southern Ocean and interior Antarctica and find that MPs fibers are transported more efficiently than MPs fragments along the transect, with the transport dynamics of MPs generally similar to those of non-plastic particles. Morphology is found to be the dominant factor influencing the hemispheric transport of MPs to remote Antarctic regions. This study underlines the importance of long-range atmospheric transport in MPs cycling dynamics in the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qiqing Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Guitao Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China.
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science (Ministry of Education), School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Laura E Revell
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
| | - Jun Zhang
- NYU-ECNU Physics and Mathematics Research Institutes, New York University Shanghai, Shanghai, 200062, China
- Department of Physics, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Chencheng Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Danhe Wang
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science (Ministry of Education), School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Eric C Le Ru
- The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 6140, New Zealand
| | - Guangmei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science (Ministry of Education), School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Denise M Mitrano
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|