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Korkmaz E, Aerts S, Coesoij R, Bhatt CR, Velghe M, Colussi L, Land D, Petroulakis N, Spirito M, Bolte J. A comprehensive review of 5G NR RF-EMF exposure assessment technologies: fundamentals, advancements, challenges, niches, and implications. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 260:119524. [PMID: 38972338 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.119524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 06/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
This review offers a detailed examination of the current landscape of radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field (EMF) assessment tools, ranging from spectrum analyzers and broadband field meters to area monitors and custom-built devices. The discussion encompasses both standardized and non-standardized measurement protocols, shedding light on the various methods employed in this domain. Furthermore, the review highlights the prevalent use of mobile apps for characterizing 5G NR radio network data. A growing need for low-cost measurement devices is observed, commonly referred to as "sensors" or "sensor nodes", that are capable of enduring diverse environmental conditions. These sensors play a crucial role in both microenvironmental surveys and individual exposures, enabling stationary, mobile, and personal exposure assessments based on body-worn sensors, across wider geographical areas. This review revealed a notable need for cost-effective and long-lasting sensors, whether for individual exposure assessments, mobile (vehicle-integrated) measurements, or incorporation into distributed sensor networks. However, there is a lack of comprehensive information on existing custom-developed RF-EMF measurement tools, especially in terms of measuring uncertainty. Additionally, there is a need for real-time, fast-sampling solutions to understand the highly irregular temporal variations EMF distribution in next-generation networks. Given the diversity of tools and methods, a comprehensive comparison is crucial to determine the necessary statistical tools for aggregating the available measurement data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erdal Korkmaz
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - Sam Aerts
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Richard Coesoij
- Delft University of Technology, Department of Microelectronics, 2628 CN, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, VIC 3085, Yallambie, Australia
| | - Maarten Velghe
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Loek Colussi
- Dutch Authority for Digital Infrastructure, 9700 AL, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Derek Land
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Nikolaos Petroulakis
- Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, 70013, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Marco Spirito
- Delft University of Technology, Department of Microelectronics, 2628 CN, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - John Bolte
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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2
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Kljajic D, Djuric N, Skoric T, Djuric S. The exposure analysis of the long-term broadband EMF monitoring in the campus area of the University of Novi Sad. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2024; 200:848-861. [PMID: 38836604 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncae134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Due to wide prevalence of electromagnetic field (EMF) sources in human surrounding, EMF-level measurements and corresponding exposure assessment have imposed as an important topic. With an intention to present an approach to the long-term exposure assessment in EMF RATEL network, this paper conveys a high-level statistical analysis of the high-frequency exposure data, acquired during the 5-y time period, for the case study of monitoring sensor installed in the area of the Novi Sad University campus. Time series of exposure values were averaged on a daily, weekly, and monthly basis, and their yearly comparison was performed. Results showed clear differences between the day and night hours, as well between working and weekend days. Regarding exposure values, averaged on the monthly basis, the impact of COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021 can be noticed. Finally, the highest obtained exposure values (electric field squared) were 22 times below the maximal allowable level, according to the Serbian legislation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragan Kljajic
- Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Nikola Djuric
- Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Tamara Skoric
- Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Snezana Djuric
- Institute BioSense, University of Novi Sad, Zorana Djindjica 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
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Lee AK, Choi HD. Dosimetric assessment in the brain for downlink EMF exposure in Korean mobile communication networks. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 234:116542. [PMID: 37414391 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
Because the position and direction of the human body is not fixed in an actual environment, the incidence direction of the electromagnetic field (EMF) from mobile communication base stations, WiFi access points, broadcasting towers, and other far-field sources is arbitrary. To analyze the overall health effects of radio frequency EMF exposure, the dosimetric assessment for such environmental exposures created from an unspecified number of sources in daily life, along with exposures from specific EMF sources, must be quantified. This study is aimed at numerically evaluating the time-averaged specific absorption rate (SAR) of the human brain for environmental EMF exposure in the frequency range of 50-5800 MHz. Whole-body exposure to EMFs that are evenly incident spatially is considered. By comparing the results of several incidence directions and the number of polarizations, an optimal calculation condition has been derived. Finally, based on the results measured in Seoul at the end of 2021, the SAR and daily specific energy absorption (SA) in the brains of both a child and an adult for downlink exposures from 3G to 5G base stations are reported. Comparison results of the daily brain SA for exposure to DL EMF in all 3G to 5G mobile networks and exposure to a 10-min voice call (uplink EMF) using a mobile phone connected to a 4G network show that the SA from the downlinks is much higher than that from the uplinks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ae-Kyoung Lee
- Radio Technology Research Department, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (ETRI), 218 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34129, South Korea.
| | - Hyung-Do Choi
- Radio Technology Research Department, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (ETRI), 218 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34129, South Korea
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Escobar I, Moreno JJH, Martínez-Plaza A, Maffey S, Arribas E. Personal exposure from free Wi-Fi hotspots in downtown Mexico City. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:91216-91225. [PMID: 37474852 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-28839-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
In 2019, the Government of Mexico City implemented actions that allowed citizens to approach a free Wi-Fi hotspot, where more than 13000 points have been installed throughout the city. In this work, we present the results of the measurements of personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields carried out in Plaza de la Constitución, better known as Zócalo located in the center of Mexico City. The measurements were taken by one of the researchers while walking on a weekday morning and afternoon, in different microenvironments (on the street, on public transport: subway, at the Zócalo, and finally, at home). We also carry out spot measurements in the center of the Zócalo. Subsequently, we carried out a comparative analysis of the different microenvironments, through box plot and violin plot, and we elaborate georeferenced and interpolated maps with intensity levels through the Kriging method, using the Geographic Information System. The Kriging interpolation gives us a good visualization of the spatial distribution of RF-EMF exposure in the study area, showing the highest and lowest intensity levels. The mean values recorded at the measured points in the Zócalo were 326 μW/m2 in the 2.4- to 2.5-GHz Wi-Fi band and 2370 μW/m2 in the 5.15- to 5.85-GHz Wi-Fi band. In the case of the mean values recorded on the street, they were 119 μW/m2 in the 2.4- to 2.5-GHz frequency band and 31.8 μW/m2 in the 5.15- to 5.85-GHz frequency band, like the values recorded at home, 122 μW/m2 and 33.9 μW/m2, respectively. All values are well below the reference levels established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Applied Physics Department, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
- ESAT-WaveCoRE, Department of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, Box 2444, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Isabel Escobar
- Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Applied Physics Department, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Juan José Hurtado Moreno
- Sección de Estudiantes de Posgrado e Investigación, UPIICSA-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Antonio Martínez-Plaza
- Mathematics Department, School of Industrial Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | | | - Enrique Arribas
- Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Applied Physics Department, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain.
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Elbasheir MS, Saeed RA, Edam S. Multi-Technology Multi-Operator Site Sharing: Compliance Distance Analysis for EMF Exposure. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:1588. [PMID: 36772628 PMCID: PMC9919820 DOI: 10.3390/s23031588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the development of wireless technologies has led to fast growth in mobile networks, especially with the rise of 5G New Radio (5G NR). A huge number of base stations (BSs) are mandatory to serve the growth of mobile services, which has led to concerns about the increase in electromagnetic field (EMF) radiation exposure levels. To control the overall power emitted by EMF transmitters, international bodies have set maximum exposure limits. This paper investigates the compliance distances (CDs) of shared sites by a group of Mobile Network Operators (MNO) as multi-operators operating with multi-technology and sharing the same tower. The study investigated the CDs of the most two commonly used types of sharing sites, macro and indoor-Based solution sites (IBS). In addition, the study analyzed the power densities and total exposure ratios for the general public and occupational workers in each sharing scenario. The results showed that, compared with a single MNO, the CD increased by 41% in the case of two MNOs, 73% for three MNOs, and 100% for four MNOs. The EMF site sharing scale-up formula was used to estimate the increase in CDs for N number of MNOs assuming that all MNOs use the same site configuration. In addition, the results showed that 5G has the highest contribution to the total exposure ratio (TER) at the CD in the main direction of the antennae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed S. Elbasheir
- School of Electronic Engineering, College of Engineering, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum 14413, Sudan
| | - Rashid A. Saeed
- Department of Computer Engineering, College of Computers and Information Technology, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Salaheldin Edam
- School of Electronic Engineering, College of Engineering, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum 14413, Sudan
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Iakovidis S, Apostolidis C, Manassas A, Samaras T. Electromagnetic Fields Exposure Assessment in Europe Utilizing Publicly Available Data. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:8481. [PMID: 36366179 PMCID: PMC9654131 DOI: 10.3390/s22218481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The ever-increasing use of wireless communication systems during the last few decades has raised concerns about the potential health effects of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) on humans. Safety limits and exposure assessment methods were developed and are regularly updated to mitigate health risks. Continuous radiofrequency EMF monitoring networks and in situ measurement campaigns provide useful information about environmental EMF levels and their variations over time and in different microenvironments. In this study, published data from the five largest monitoring networks and from two extensive in situ measurement campaigns in different European countries were gathered and processed. Median electric field values for monitoring networks across different countries lay in the interval of 0.67-1.51 V/m. The median electric field value across different microenvironments, as evaluated from in situ measurements, varied from 0.10 V/m to 1.42 V/m. The differences between networks were identified and mainly attributed to variations in population density. No significant trends in the temporal evolution of EMF levels were observed. The influences of parameters such as population density, type of microenvironment, and height of measurement on EMF levels were investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serafeim Iakovidis
- CIRI—Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thermi, Greece
| | - Christos Apostolidis
- CIRI—Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thermi, Greece
| | - Athanasios Manassas
- CIRI—Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thermi, Greece
| | - Theodoros Samaras
- Radiocommunications Lab, Department of Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Deprez K, Verloock L, Colussi L, Aerts S, Van den Bossche M, Kamer J, Bolte J, Martens L, Plets D, Joseph W. IN-SITU 5G NR BASE STATION EXPOSURE OF THE GENERAL PUBLIC: COMPARISON OF ASSESSMENT METHODS. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2022; 198:358-369. [PMID: 35511688 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncac061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
New measurement methods and equipment for correct 5G New Radio (NR) electromagnetic field (EMF) in-situ exposure assessment of instantaneous time-averaged exposure (Eavg) and maximum extrapolated field exposure (Emax) are proposed. The different options are investigated with in-situ measurements around 5G NR base stations (FR1) in different countries. The maximum electric field values satisfy the ICNIRP 2020 limit (maximum 7.7%). The difference between Emax and Eavg is <3 dB for the different measurement equipment at multiple sites in case there is only self-generated traffic. However, in a more realistic scenario, Eavg cannot be used to assess the exposure correctly due to influence of other users as the spatial distribution of user equipment (UE) influences Eavg, while Emax is not affected. However, when multiple UEs are collocated, there is no influence of the number of UEs. A broadband measurement can give a first impression of the RF-EMF exposure up to 700 m, but is not enough to assess the 5G-NR exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Deprez
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Leen Verloock
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Loek Colussi
- Radiocommunications Agency, Postbus 450, 9700 AL Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Sam Aerts
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Matthias Van den Bossche
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Jos Kamer
- Radiocommunications Agency, Postbus 450, 9700 AL Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - John Bolte
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
- Smart Sensor Systems group, Faculty of Technology, Innovation, and Society, The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Rotterdamseweg 137, 2628 AL Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - David Plets
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
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8
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Measurement of Base Transceiver Station Exposure in the Extra-Village Environment- A Pilot Study. ACTA MEDICA MARTINIANA 2022. [DOI: 10.2478/acm-2022-0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
In recent years, communication using electromagnetic (EM) radiation became an integral part of our lives. As a result, there is a large number of base transceiver stations (BTSs) which act as a source of high EM exposure for inhabitants mainly in the “hot-spot” areas. They employ higher values of radiation, thus, providing potentially harmful effects on living or working environment. The aim of this pilot study was to study a distribution of hot-spots and EMF power in a vicinity of BTSs. BTS was located in an extra-village area at least 500 m away from the nearest city or surrounded villages in the district of Martin. The targeted area of EM radiation from the BTS was divided into two smaller zones, the right and the left. For a better visualization, topographic maps were created. Using spectral analyzer Aaronia Spectran HF-6085, intensities of EMF within the frequency range from 880 – 960 MHz (GSM900) were recorded. Maximum values of EMF power flux density were 146.827 μW/m2 in horizontal and 96.448 μW/m2 in vertical plane. Minimal va lues were 0.052 μW/m2 in horizontal and 0.179 μW/m2 vertical plane respectively. The maps revealed two hotspots in the left zone and also two (smaller and larger) hotspots in the right zone. Our values were below the actual limits given by the Slovak Republic and the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) safety guidelines. However, the values from the hotspots were above the limits suggested by the BioInitiative Report. Our results indicate an elevation of EMF values in the hot-spots even in the extra-village areas. Further studies are needed to analyze in detail EMF parameters in the hot-spots, and their effects on living and working environments.
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Boussad Y, Chen XL, Legout A, Chaintreau A, Dabbous W. Longitudinal study of exposure to radio frequencies at population scale. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 162:107144. [PMID: 35339930 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Evaluating exposure to radio frequencies (RF) at population-scale is important for conducting sound epidemiological studies about possible health impact of RF radiations. Numerous studies reported population exposure to RF radiations used in wireless telecommunication technologies, but used very small population samples. In this context, the real exposure of the population at scale remains poorly understood. Here, to the best of our knowledge, we report the largest crowd-based measurement of population exposure to RF produced by cellular antennas, Wi-Fi access points, and Bluetooth devices for 254,410 unique users in 13 countries from January 2017 to December 2020. First, we present methods to assess the population exposure to RF radiations using smartphone measurements obtained using the ElectroSmart Android app. Then, we use these methods to evaluate and characterize the evolution of RF exposure. We show that total exposure has been multiplied by 2.3 in the four-year period considered, with Wi-Fi as the largest contributor. The cellular exposure levels are orders of magnitude lower than regulation limits and are not correlated to national regulation policies. The population tends to be more exposed at home; for half of the study subjects, personal Wi-Fi routers and Bluetooth devices contributed to more than 50% of their total exposure. In this work, we showcase how crowdsource-based data allow large-scale and long-term assessment of population exposure to RF radiations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanis Boussad
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inria. Sophia Antipolis, 06902, France
| | | | - Arnaud Legout
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inria. Sophia Antipolis, 06902, France.
| | | | - Walid Dabbous
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inria. Sophia Antipolis, 06902, France
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Aerts S, Vermeeren G, Van den Bossche M, Aminzadeh R, Verloock L, Thielens A, Leroux P, Bergs J, Braem B, Philippron A, Martens L, Joseph W. Lessons Learned from a Distributed RF-EMF Sensor Network. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22051715. [PMID: 35270862 PMCID: PMC8914968 DOI: 10.3390/s22051715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In an increasingly wireless world, spatiotemporal monitoring of the exposure to environmental radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF) is crucial to appease public uncertainty and anxiety about RF-EMF. However, although the advent of smart city infrastructures allows for dense networks of distributed sensors, the costs of accurate RF sensors remain high, and dedicated RF monitoring networks remain rare. This paper describes a comprehensive study comprising the design of a low-cost RF-EMF sensor node capable of monitoring four frequency bands used by wireless telecommunications with an unparalleled temporal resolution, its application in a small-scale distributed sensor network consisting of both fixed (on building façades) and mobile sensor nodes (on postal vans), and the subsequent analysis of over a year of data between January 2019 and May 2020, during which slightly less than 10 million samples were collected. From the fixed nodes’ results, the potential errors were determined that are induced when sampling at lower speeds (e.g., one sample per 15 min) and measuring for shorter periods of time (e.g., a few weeks), as well as an adequate resolution (30 min) for diurnal and weekly temporal profiles which sufficiently preserves short-term variations. Furthermore, based on the correlation between the sensors, an adequate density of 100 sensor nodes per km2 was deduced for future networks. Finally, the mobile sensor nodes were used to identify potential RF-EMF exposure hotspots in a previously unattainable area of more than 60 km2. In summary, through the analysis of a small number of RF-EMF sensor nodes (both fixed and mobile) in an urban area, this study offers invaluable insights applicable to future designs and deployments of distributed RF-EMF sensor networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Aerts
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Günter Vermeeren
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Matthias Van den Bossche
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Reza Aminzadeh
- Unitron NV-Unitron Connect, Frankrijklaan 27, 8970 Poperinge, Belgium;
| | - Leen Verloock
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Arno Thielens
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Philip Leroux
- IDLab, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium;
| | - Johan Bergs
- IDLab, University of Antwerp/imec, Sint-Pietersvliet 7, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium; (J.B.); (B.B.)
| | - Bart Braem
- IDLab, University of Antwerp/imec, Sint-Pietersvliet 7, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium; (J.B.); (B.B.)
| | | | - Luc Martens
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Wout Joseph
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
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11
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van Wel L, Liorni I, Huss A, Thielens A, Wiart J, Joseph W, Röösli M, Foerster M, Massardier-Pilonchery A, Capstick M, Cardis E, Vermeulen R. Radio-frequency electromagnetic field exposure and contribution of sources in the general population: an organ-specific integrative exposure assessment. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2021; 31:999-1007. [PMID: 33654268 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-021-00287-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In order to achieve an integrated radio-frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) dose assessment, detailed information about source-specific exposure duration and output power is needed. We developed an Integrated Exposure Model (IEM) to combine energy absorbed due to use of and exposure to RF-EMF sources and applied it to a sample of the general population to derive population RF-EMF estimates. The IEM used specific absorption rate transfer algorithms to provide RF-EMF daily dose estimates (mJ/kg/day) using source-specific attributes (e.g. output power, distance), personal characteristics and usage patterns. Information was obtained from an international survey performed in four European countries with 1755 participants. We obtained median whole-body and whole-brain doses of 183.7 and 204.4 mJ/kg/day. Main contributors to whole-brain dose were mobile phone near the head for calling (2G networks) and far-field sources, whereas the latter together with multiple other RF-EMF sources were main contributors for whole-body dose. For other anatomical sites, 2G phone calls, mobile data and far-field exposure were important contributors. The IEM provides insight into main contributors to total RF-EMF dose and, applied to an international survey, provides an estimate of population RF-dose. The IEM can be used in future epidemiological studies, risk assessments and exposure reduction strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luuk van Wel
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ilaria Liorni
- Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT'IS Foundation), Zeughausstrasse, 43, 8004, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University, IMEC, Waves Research Group, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley Wireless Research Center, Berkeley, CA, 94704, USA
| | - Joe Wiart
- Chair C2M, LTCI Télecom Paris, Institut polytechnique de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University, IMEC, Waves Research Group, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Milena Foerster
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Amelie Massardier-Pilonchery
- Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon, Ifsttar, UMRESTTE, UMR T_9405, 8 Avenue Rockefeller, 69373, Lyon, France
- Centre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69495, Pierre Bénite, France
| | - Myles Capstick
- Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT'IS Foundation), Zeughausstrasse, 43, 8004, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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12
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Radiofrequency Exposure Levels from Mobile Phone Base Stations in Outdoor Environments and an Underground Shopping Mall in Japan. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18158068. [PMID: 34360361 PMCID: PMC8345342 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18158068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Recent progress in wireless technologies has made human exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) increasingly complex. The situation can increase public concerns related to possible health effects due to EMF exposure. Monitoring EMF exposure levels and characterizing them are indispensable for risk communications of human exposure to EMFs. From this background, a project on the acquisition, accumulation, and applications of EMF exposure monitoring data in Japan was started in 2019. One of the objectives of this project is to obtain a comprehensive picture of EMF exposure in actual daily lives. In 2019 and 2020, we measured the electric field (E-field) strength from mainly mobile phone base stations in the same areas as those in measurements conducted in 2006 and 2007 by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC), Japan, and compared the data to investigate the time-course of the EMF environment. The number of measured points was 100 (10 × 10 grids) in an area of 1 km × 1 km in two urban and two suburban areas, and that in an underground shopping mall was 158. This large-scale study is the first in Japan. As a result, we found that the measured E-field strengths tended to be higher in 2019 and 2020 than those in 2006 and 2007, especially in the mall. However, the median ratios to the Japanese radio wave protection guideline values for urban areas and malls are lower than −40 dB.
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Velghe M, Aerts S, Martens L, Joseph W, Thielens A. Protocol for personal RF-EMF exposure measurement studies in 5th generation telecommunication networks. Environ Health 2021; 20:36. [PMID: 33794922 PMCID: PMC8017841 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-021-00719-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The general population is exposed to Radio-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMFs) used by telecommunication networks. Previous studies developed methods to assess this exposure. These methods will be inadequate to accurately assess exposure in 5G technologies or other wireless technologies using adaptive antennas. This is due to the fact that 5G NR (new radio) base stations will focus actively on connected users, resulting in a high spatio-temporal variations in the RF-EMFs. This increases the measurement uncertainty in personal measurements of RF-EMF exposure. Furthermore, a user's exposure from base stations will be dependent on the amount of data usage, adding a new component to the auto-induced exposure, which is often omitted in current studies. GOALS The objective of this paper is to develop a general study protocol for future personal RF-EMF exposure research adapted to 5G technologies. This protocol will include the assessment of auto-induced exposure of both a user's own devices and the networks' base stations. METHOD This study draws from lessons learned from previous RF-EMF exposure research and current knowledge on 5G technologies, including studies simulating 5G NR base stations and measurements around 5G NR test sites. RESULTS To account for auto-induced exposure, an activity-based approach is introduced. In survey studies, an RF-EMF sensor is fixed on the participants' mobile device(s). Based on the measured power density, GPS data and movement and proximity sensors, different activities can be clustered and the exposure during each activity is evaluated. In microenvironmental measurements, a trained researcher performs measurements in predefined microenvironments with a mobile device equipped with the RF-EMF sensor. The mobile device is programmed to repeat a sequence of data transmission scenarios (different amounts of uplink and downlink data transmissions). Based on simulations, the amount of exposure induced in the body when the user device is at a certain location relative to the body, can be evaluated. CONCLUSION Our protocol addresses the main challenges to personal exposure measurement introduced by 5G NR. A systematic method to evaluate a user's auto-induced exposure is introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Velghe
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Sam Aerts
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium
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14
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Gonzalez-Rubio J, Escobar I, Suarez Rodriguez CDP, Arribas E. Personal Exposure Assessment to Wi-Fi Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields in Mexican Microenvironments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18041857. [PMID: 33673014 PMCID: PMC7918906 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) has substantially increased, and most studies about RF-EMF with volunteers have been developed in Europe. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study carried out in Mexico with personal exposimeters. The main objective was to measure personal exposure to RF-EMF from Wireless Fidelity or wireless Internet connection (Wi-Fi) frequency bands in Tamazunchale, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, to compare results with maximum levels permitted by international recommendations and to find if there are differences in the microenvironments subject to measurements. The study was conducted with 63 volunteers in different microenvironments: home, workplace, outside, schools, travel, and shopping. The mean minimum values registered were 146.5 μW/m2 in travel from the Wi-Fi 2G band and 116.8 μW/m2 at home from the Wi-Fi 5G band, and the maximum values registered were 499.7 μW/m2 and 264.9 μW/m2 at the workplace for the Wi-Fi 2G band and the Wi-Fi 5G band, respectively. In addition, by time period and type of day, minimum values were registered at nighttime, these values being 129.4 μW/m2 and 93.9 μW/m2, and maximum values were registered in the daytime, these values being 303.1 μW/m2 and 168.3 μW/m2 for the Wi-Fi 2G and Wi-Fi 5G bands, respectively. In no case, values exceeded limits established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Of the study participants (n = 63), a subgroup (n = 35) answered a survey on risk perception. According to these results, the Tamazunchale (Mexico) population is worried about this situation in comparison with several European cities; however, the risk perception changes when they are informed about the results for the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (I.E.); (E.A.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Jesus Gonzalez-Rubio
- Medical Science Department, School of Medicine, University of Castilla-La Mancha, C/Almansa 14, 02071 Albacete, Spain;
| | - Isabel Escobar
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (I.E.); (E.A.)
| | - Carmen del Pilar Suarez Rodriguez
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi, Academic Coordination of the Huasteca South Region, Tamazunchale, San Luis Potosi 79960, Mexico;
| | - Enrique Arribas
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (I.E.); (E.A.)
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15
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Regrain C, Caudeville J, de Seze R, Guedda M, Chobineh A, de Doncker P, Petrillo L, Chiaramello E, Parazzini M, Joseph W, Aerts S, Huss A, Wiart J. Design of an Integrated Platform for Mapping Residential Exposure to Rf-Emf Sources. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17155339. [PMID: 32722208 PMCID: PMC7432236 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17155339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays, information and communication technologies (mobile phones, connected objects) strongly occupy our daily life. The increasing use of these technologies and the complexity of network infrastructures raise issues about radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (Rf-Emf) exposure. Most previous studies have assessed individual exposure to Rf-Emf, and the next level is to assess populational exposure. In our study, we designed a statistical tool for Rf-Emf populational exposure assessment and mapping. This tool integrates geographic databases and surrogate models to characterize spatiotemporal exposure from outdoor sources, indoor sources, and mobile phones. A case study was conducted on a 100 × 100 m grid covering the 14th district of Paris to illustrate the functionalities of the tool. Whole-body specific absorption rate (SAR) values are 2.7 times higher than those for the whole brain. The mapping of whole-body and whole-brain SAR values shows a dichotomy between built-up and non-built-up areas, with the former displaying higher values. Maximum SAR values do not exceed 3.5 and 3.9 mW/kg for the whole body and the whole brain, respectively, thus they are significantly below International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) recommendations. Indoor sources are the main contributor to populational exposure, followed by outdoor sources and mobile phones, which generally represents less than 1% of total exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corentin Regrain
- Institut National de l’Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Parc, 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France; (J.C.); (R.d.S.)
- LAMFA, UMR CNRS 7352, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 33 rue Saint-Leu, 80039 Amiens, France;
- PériTox, UMR_I 01, CURS, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80025 Amiens, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33344556252
| | - Julien Caudeville
- Institut National de l’Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Parc, 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France; (J.C.); (R.d.S.)
- PériTox, UMR_I 01, CURS, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80025 Amiens, France
| | - René de Seze
- Institut National de l’Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Parc, 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France; (J.C.); (R.d.S.)
- PériTox, UMR_I 01, CURS, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80025 Amiens, France
| | - Mohammed Guedda
- LAMFA, UMR CNRS 7352, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 33 rue Saint-Leu, 80039 Amiens, France;
| | - Amirreza Chobineh
- LTCI Telecom Paris, Chaire C2m, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France; (A.C.); (J.W.)
| | - Philippe de Doncker
- OPERA—Wireless Communications Group, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (P.d.D.); (L.P.)
| | - Luca Petrillo
- OPERA—Wireless Communications Group, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (P.d.D.); (L.P.)
| | - Emma Chiaramello
- CNR IEIIT—Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell’Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.C.); (M.P.)
| | - Marta Parazzini
- CNR IEIIT—Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell’Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.C.); (M.P.)
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (W.J.); (S.A.)
| | - Sam Aerts
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (W.J.); (S.A.)
| | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, 3508 Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Joe Wiart
- LTCI Telecom Paris, Chaire C2m, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France; (A.C.); (J.W.)
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16
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Arabasi S, Al-Taani H, Sbeih S, Gonzalez-Rubio J, Escobar I, Arribas E. Georeferencing of Personal Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields from Wi-Fi in a University Area. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E1898. [PMID: 32183369 PMCID: PMC7142519 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17061898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In the last two decades, due to the development of the information society, the massive increase in the use of information technologies, including the connection and communication of multiple electronic devices, highlighting Wi-Fi networks, as well as the emerging technological advances of 4G and 5G (new-generation mobile phones that will use 5G), have caused a significant increase in the personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF), and as a consequence, increasing discussions about the possible adverse health effects. The main objective of this study was to measure the personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields from the Wi-Fi in the university area of German Jordanian University (GJU) and prepare georeferenced maps of the registered intensity levels and to compare them with the basic international restrictions. Spot measurements were made outside the university area at German Jordanian University. Measurements were made in the whole university area and around two buildings. Two Satimo EME SPY 140 (Brest, France) personal exposimeters were used, and the measurements were performed in the morning and afternoon, and on weekends and weekdays. The total average personal exposure to RF-EMF from the Wi-Fi band registered in the three study areas and in the four days measured was 28.82 μW/m2. The average total exposure from the Wi-Fi band registered in the ten measured points of the university area of GJU was 22.97 μW/m2, the one registered in the eight measured points of building H was 34.48 μW/m2, and the one registered in the eight points of building C was 29.00 μW/m2. The maximum average values registered in the campus of GJU are below the guidelines allowed by International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The measurement protocol used in this work has been applied in measurements already carried out in Spain and Mexico, and it is applicable in university areas of other countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science, Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (R.R.-V.); (I.E.)
| | - Sameer Arabasi
- School of Basic Sciences and Humanities, German Jordanian University, Amman Madaba Street, P.O. Box 35247, Amman 11180, Jordan; (S.A.); (H.A.-T.); (S.S.)
| | - Hussein Al-Taani
- School of Basic Sciences and Humanities, German Jordanian University, Amman Madaba Street, P.O. Box 35247, Amman 11180, Jordan; (S.A.); (H.A.-T.); (S.S.)
| | - Suhad Sbeih
- School of Basic Sciences and Humanities, German Jordanian University, Amman Madaba Street, P.O. Box 35247, Amman 11180, Jordan; (S.A.); (H.A.-T.); (S.S.)
| | - Jesus Gonzalez-Rubio
- Medical Science Department, School of Medicine, University of Castilla-La Mancha, C/ Almansa 14, 02071 Albacete, Spain;
| | - Isabel Escobar
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science, Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (R.R.-V.); (I.E.)
| | - Enrique Arribas
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science, Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (R.R.-V.); (I.E.)
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17
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Velghe M, Joseph W, Debouvere S, Aminzadeh R, Martens L, Thielens A. Characterisation of spatial and temporal variability of RF-EMF exposure levels in urban environments in Flanders, Belgium. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 175:351-366. [PMID: 31150934 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Personal exposure to Radio-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMFs) was studied using personal measurements in five different microenvironments in each of five cities (Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges and Hasselt) in Flanders, Belgium. These measurements were carried out by two researchers using on-body calibrated personal exposimeters. In three out of the five studied cities (Brussels, Ghent and Bruges), temporal aspects of personal exposure to RF-EMFs were studied as well. Measurements during and outside of rush hours (7:00-9:15 and 16:30-19:00) were compared. Likewise, measurements were executed during night time and compared to the ones measured during working hours. Representativeness and repeatability of the measurement method was studied as well. The highest mean total exposure was found in Brussels (2.63 mW/m2), the most densely populated city in this study. However, we measured higher downlink exposure in Antwerp than in Brussels, which might be an effect of the stronger legislation on base stations in Brussels. The measurements and used protocol were found to be both repeatable over time (r = 0.95 for median total exposure) and representative for the studied microenvironments in terms of path selection (r = 0.88 for median total exposure). Finally, in 10 out of the 13 on-body calibrated frequency bands we found that the measurement devices underestimate the intensity of the incident RF-EMFs with median underestimations up to 68%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Velghe
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium.
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Senne Debouvere
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Reza Aminzadeh
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium; Berkeley Wireless Research Center, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, 2108 Allston Way, Suite 200, Berkeley, CA, 94704, USA
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18
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Measurement of Low-level radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in the human environment. ACTA MEDICA MARTINIANA 2018. [DOI: 10.2478/acm-2018-0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
In recent years there has been an increase in development of electromagnetic (EM) technology in the telecommunication industry, resulting in an increase in human non-ionizing exposure. This fact has initiated a number of scientific studies on possible health effects of EM fields on human organism. Totally four representative microenvironments were investigated for RF EM fields distribution, namely: city center, residential area, rural area, and extra-village area. Each microenvironment was measured 20 times in accordance with the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines. The extra-village measurements were taken as the base values that reflect the E-field intensities with the lowest amplitudes. The statistical analysis revealed notable statistical significance (p < 0.001) in almost all measured frequency bands except the Wi-Fi where the p-values were less than 0.05 for the city center and residential area but not significant for rural area. The highest total E-field intensity was measured in the residential area (approximately 1.85 V/m). All measured values were below the legal limits of the Slovak Republic and ICNIRP safety guidelines. However, the ICNIRP safety limits were written in 1998 considering only the thermal effects of RF radiation. They were updated in 2009 without any changes in the limits and still recommend 27.5 – 61 V/m (2 – 10 W/m2) for the RF frequency band of 400–2,000 MHz. The BioInitiative Report of 2012 established the scientific benchmark for possible health risks as 30–60 μW/m2 (approximately 0.1 – 0.15 V/m). Thus, all measured values were above the scientifically derived limits.
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Zeleke BM, Brzozek C, Bhatt CR, Abramson MJ, Croft RJ, Freudenstein F, Wiedemann P, Benke G. Personal Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields among Australian Adults. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15102234. [PMID: 30321997 PMCID: PMC6211035 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15102234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The measurement of personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) is important for epidemiological studies. RF-EMF exposure can be measured using personal exposimeters that register RF-EMFs over a wide range of frequency bands. This study aimed to measure and describe personal RF-EMF exposure levels from a wide range of frequency bands. Measurements were recorded from 63 participants over an average of 27.4 (±4.5) hours. RF-EMF exposure levels were computed for each frequency band, as well as from downlink (RF from mobile phone base station), uplink (RF from mobile phone handsets), broadcast, and Wi-Fi. Participants had a mean (±SD) age of 36.9 ± 12.5 years; 66.7% were women; and almost all (98.2%) from urban areas. A Wi-Fi router at home was reported by 61 participants (96.8%), with 38 (61.2%) having a Wi-Fi enabled smart TV. Overall, 26 (41.3%) participants had noticed the existence of a mobile phone base station in their neighborhood. On average, participants estimated the distance between the base station and their usual residence to be about 500 m. The median personal RF-EMF exposure was 208 mV/m. Downlink contributed 40.4% of the total RF-EMF exposure, followed by broadcast (22.4%), uplink (17.3%), and Wi-Fi (15.9%). RF-EMF exposure levels on weekdays were higher than weekends (p < 0.05). Downlink and broadcast are the main contributors to total RF-EMF personal exposure. Personal RF-EMF exposure levels vary according to day of the week and time of day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berihun M Zeleke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Christopher Brzozek
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Monash University Endocrine Surgery Unit, Alfred Hospital, 55 Commercial Rd, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Monash Emergency Service, Monash Health, Dandenong Hospital, 135 David Street, Melbourne, VIC 3175, Australia.
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Rodney J Croft
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Frederik Freudenstein
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Peter Wiedemann
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
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