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Ahsan Ashraf M, Celik T. Evaluating radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure in confined spaces: a systematic review of recent studies and future directions. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2024; 200:598-616. [PMID: 38491820 PMCID: PMC11033578 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncae045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
This study reviews recent research on Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field (RF-EMF) exposure in confined environments, focusing on methodologies and parameters. Studies typically evaluate RF-EMF exposure using an electric field and specific absorption rate but fail to consider temperature rise in the tissues in confined environments. The study highlights the investigation of RF-EMF exposure in subterranean environments such as subways, tunnels and mines. Future research should evaluate the exposure of communication devices in such environments, considering the surrounding environment. Such studies will aid in understanding the risks and developing effective mitigation strategies to protect workers and the general public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Ahsan Ashraf
- Sibanye-Stillwater Digital Mining Laboratory (DigiMine), University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
| | - Turgay Celik
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
- Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Agder, 4630 Kristiansand, Norway
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Escobar I, Vandenbosch GAE, Vargas F, Caceres-Monllor DA, Arribas E. Measurement studies of personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A systematic review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 218:114979. [PMID: 36460078 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The last 25 years have seen an increase in the number of radiofrequency sources with the global adoption of smartphones as primary connectivity devices. The objective of this work was to review and evaluate the measured studies of personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-RMF) and meet the basic quality criteria eligible for inclusion in this Review, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, following the eligibility criteria of the PECO (Population, Exposure, Comparator, and Outcome) methodology, and the instrument for critical reading Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Español (CASPe). We systematically reviewed the works published between January 1, 1998, and December 31, 2021, yielding 56 publications. Of the different types of studies in which personal exposure to RF-EMF has been measured with two measurement methodologies can be highlighted: Personal measurements with volunteers and Personal measurements with a trained researcher (touring a specific area, one or several microenvironments, an entire city, walking or in some means of transport). Personal exposimeters were used in 83% of the studies. The lowest mean was measured in Egypt with a value of 0.00100 μW/m2 (1.00 nW/m2) in 2007 and the highest mean was measured in Belgium with a value of 285000 μW/m2 (0.285 W/m2) in 2019. The results of our study confirm that RF-EMF exposure levels are well below the maximum levels established by the ICNIRP guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Isabel Escobar
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Guy A E Vandenbosch
- ESAT-WaveCoRE, Dep. of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, Box 2444, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | | | - Enrique Arribas
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain.
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Zeleke BM, Brzozek C, Bhatt CR, Abramson MJ, Freudenstein F, Croft RJ, Wiedemann P, Benke G. Wi-fi related radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF): a pilot experimental study of personal exposure and risk perception. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCE & ENGINEERING 2021; 19:671-680. [PMID: 34150266 PMCID: PMC8172712 DOI: 10.1007/s40201-021-00636-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The impact of providing people with an objectively measured personal radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) exposure information on the risk perception of people is not well understood. We conducted an experimental study, among three groups of participants, to investigate the risk perception of people towards RF-EMF from Wi-Fi sources (ISM 2.4 GHz) by providing participants with either basic text, precautionary information, or a summary of their personal RF-EMF exposure measurement levels. Participants provided with personal RF-EMF exposure measurement information were more confident in protecting themselves from RF-EMF exposure, compared to those provided with only basic information. Nonetheless, neither the exposure perception nor the risk perception of people to Wi-Fi related RF-EMF differed by the type of information provided. The measured Wi-Fi signal levels were far below international exposure limits. Furthermore, self-rated levels of personal RF-EMF exposure perception were not associated with objectively measured RF-EMF exposure levels. Providing people with objectively measured information may help them build confidence in protecting themselves from Wi-Fi related RF-EMF exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berihun M. Zeleke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
| | - Christopher Brzozek
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
| | - Chhavi R. Bhatt
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
- Assessment and Advice Section, Radiation Health Services Branch, Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, 619 Lower Plenty Road, Yallambie, 3085 Australia
| | - Michael J. Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
| | - Frederik Freudenstein
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia
- Department of Risk Communication, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Rodney J. Croft
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Peter Wiedemann
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004 Australia
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Freudenstein F, Croft RJ, Loughran SP, Zeleke BM, Wiedemann PM. Effects of selective outcome reporting on risk perception. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 196:110821. [PMID: 33548295 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.110821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The current study aimed to investigate how selective reporting of study results indicating increased health effects will influence its receiver's risk perception. Using the example of the Interphone Study from 2010 on mobile phone usage and cancer, an online experiment was conducted separating respondents into two groups. One group of subjects was informed selectively about a relationship between heavy mobile phone use and an elevated risk of glioma (brain cancer) only. The other group of subjects was informed about the full results of the analyses of glioma risk by cumulative call time, which suggests that other than for the heavy users, there were no statistically significant elevated risks related to mobile phone use. The results showed that selective reporting of risk information increased risk perception when compared to receiving the full information. Additionally, the selectively informed subjects revealed a stronger tendency towards overgeneralization of the 'elevated brain cancer risk' to all mobile phone users, although this did not extend to an overgeneralization to other electromagnetic field sources or differences in the perception of a usage time dependency for possible health risks. These results indicate that reporting of full results is an important factor in effective risk communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Freudenstein
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy, Monash University, VIC, Australia; Department of Risk Communication, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany.
| | - R J Croft
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia; Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy, Monash University, VIC, Australia; School of Psychology, Faculty of the Arts, Social Sciences & Humanities, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
| | - S P Loughran
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia; Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy, Monash University, VIC, Australia; School of Psychology, Faculty of the Arts, Social Sciences & Humanities, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
| | - B M Zeleke
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy, Monash University, VIC, Australia.
| | - P M Wiedemann
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia; Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy, Monash University, VIC, Australia; School of Psychology, Faculty of the Arts, Social Sciences & Humanities, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Gonzalez-Rubio J, Escobar I, Suarez Rodriguez CDP, Arribas E. Personal Exposure Assessment to Wi-Fi Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields in Mexican Microenvironments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18041857. [PMID: 33673014 PMCID: PMC7918906 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) has substantially increased, and most studies about RF-EMF with volunteers have been developed in Europe. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study carried out in Mexico with personal exposimeters. The main objective was to measure personal exposure to RF-EMF from Wireless Fidelity or wireless Internet connection (Wi-Fi) frequency bands in Tamazunchale, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, to compare results with maximum levels permitted by international recommendations and to find if there are differences in the microenvironments subject to measurements. The study was conducted with 63 volunteers in different microenvironments: home, workplace, outside, schools, travel, and shopping. The mean minimum values registered were 146.5 μW/m2 in travel from the Wi-Fi 2G band and 116.8 μW/m2 at home from the Wi-Fi 5G band, and the maximum values registered were 499.7 μW/m2 and 264.9 μW/m2 at the workplace for the Wi-Fi 2G band and the Wi-Fi 5G band, respectively. In addition, by time period and type of day, minimum values were registered at nighttime, these values being 129.4 μW/m2 and 93.9 μW/m2, and maximum values were registered in the daytime, these values being 303.1 μW/m2 and 168.3 μW/m2 for the Wi-Fi 2G and Wi-Fi 5G bands, respectively. In no case, values exceeded limits established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Of the study participants (n = 63), a subgroup (n = 35) answered a survey on risk perception. According to these results, the Tamazunchale (Mexico) population is worried about this situation in comparison with several European cities; however, the risk perception changes when they are informed about the results for the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (I.E.); (E.A.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Jesus Gonzalez-Rubio
- Medical Science Department, School of Medicine, University of Castilla-La Mancha, C/Almansa 14, 02071 Albacete, Spain;
| | - Isabel Escobar
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (I.E.); (E.A.)
| | - Carmen del Pilar Suarez Rodriguez
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi, Academic Coordination of the Huasteca South Region, Tamazunchale, San Luis Potosi 79960, Mexico;
| | - Enrique Arribas
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (I.E.); (E.A.)
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Kacprzyk A, Kanclerz G, Rokita E, Tatoń G. Which sources of electromagnetic field are of the highest concern for electrosensitive individuals? - Questionnaire study with a literature review. Electromagn Biol Med 2020; 40:33-40. [PMID: 33100040 DOI: 10.1080/15368378.2020.1839489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The primary goal of the study was to identify sources of electromagnetic field (EMF) which are attributed to negative health outcomes by a general population of electrohypersensitive (EHS) individuals. Secondary goal was to investigate the differences in indicated sources in subgroups distinguished based on gender, sex, place of living, place of work and the distance between place of living and the nearest mobile phone base station (MPBS). The cross-sectional study aiming to describe and analyze the population of EHS subjects was performed using a web-based questionnaire. The full survey consisted of 32 questions and concerned participants' baseline characteristics and details on sensitivity to electronic devices. Participants were regarded as EHS if they answered "yes" to the question "Do the electric/electronic/telecommunication devices negatively affect your well-being?" and indicated at least one device which in their opinion had such an impact. We identified 408 EHS subjects, out of which 288 (70.73%) were females and 120 (29.27%) were males. Phones, especially mobile devices, were attributed to negative health outcomes by the highest number of subjects (309, 75.74% and 267, 65.44% for phones and mobile phones, respectively). Additional subgroup analysis indicated that older participants and participants who live closer to MPBS more often complained of physical symptoms attributed to MPBS impact (p = .02 and p < .01, respectively). Phones, especially mobile devices, are the most important source of EMF influencing EHS subjects. People who self-reported living closer to MPBS and older individuals seem to be remarkably more concerned about MPBS health impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artur Kacprzyk
- Department of Biophysics, Chair of Physiology, Jagiellonian University Medical College , Cracow, Poland.,School in Medical and Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Medical College , Cracow, Poland
| | - Gabriela Kanclerz
- Students' Scientific Group of Medical Biophysics, Jagiellonian University Medical College , Cracow, Poland
| | - Eugeniusz Rokita
- Department of Biophysics, Chair of Physiology, Jagiellonian University Medical College , Cracow, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Tatoń
- Department of Biophysics, Chair of Physiology, Jagiellonian University Medical College , Cracow, Poland
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