Perinatal exposure to bisphenol A increases in the adulthood of the offspring the susceptibility to the human parasite Toxocara canis

Integrated analysis reveals the immunotoxicity mechanism of BPs on human lymphocytes

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a well-documented endocrine-disrupting chemical widely used in plastic products. In addition to its endocrine-disrupting effects, BPA exhibits immunotoxicity. Many countries have banned BPA because of its adverse effects on human health. In recent years, many chemicals such as bisphenol B (BPB), bisphenol E (BPE), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol fluorene (BHPF) have been used to replace BPA. Because these replacement chemicals have chemical structures similar to that of BPA, they may also harm human health. However, their immunotoxicity and the molecular mechanisms underlying their toxicity remain largely unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the immunotoxicity of BPA and its replacement chemicals, as well as the underlying mechanisms by exposing primary human lymphocytes to BPA and its replacement chemicals. Our results showed that exposure to BPA and its replacement chemicals altered the interleukin (IL) and cytokine production, such as IL-1b, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, interferon alfa-2b (IFN-a2B), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), in the lymphocytes. Among these, BPA and BHPF caused a greater inhibition. Using comparative transcriptomic analysis, we further investigated the biological processes and signaling pathways altered by BHPF exposure. Our data highlighted alterations in the immune response, T cell function, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions in human lymphocytes through the deregulation of gene clusters. In addition, the results of ingenuity pathway analysis demonstrated the inhibition of T lymphocyte function, including differentiation, movement, and infiltration. Our results, for the first time, delineate the mechanisms underlying the immunotoxicity of BHPF in human lymphocytes.

NK Cells in the Lymph Nodes and Their Role in Anti-Tumour Immunity

The lymph nodes are vital to enable adaptive immune responses to infection. Natural killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic lymphocytes that directly kill cancer cells and modulate the activation of other immune cells during anti-tumour immune response. NK cells in the lymph nodes are involved in the regulation of T-cell and B-cell populations and the clearance of viral infections. In solid tumours, lymph nodes are a frequent site of metastasis and immune cell priming, whilst in haematological malignancies, tumour cells can proliferate in the lymph nodes. Thus, lymph nodes are an important site in anti-tumour immunity and therapy resistance. It is therefore crucial to identify strategies to increase recruitment and overcome suppression of NK cells in the lymph node microenvironment to improve tumour clearance. In this review, we summarise the literature interrogating NK cell phenotype and function in the lymph nodes in the context of infection and cancer and evaluate both current and potential strategies to mobilise and activate NK cells within the lymph nodes of cancer patients.

In Vitro Effects of Bisphenol Analogs on Immune Cells Activation and Th Differentiation

AIMS

Investigate the immunomodulatory effects of bisphenols in the THP-1 cell line and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activation or to phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and ionomycin.

BACKGROUND

We have previously demonstrated the usefulness of the evaluation of RACK1 expression as a link between endocrine disrupting activity and the immunotoxic effect of xenobiotics. We demonstrated that while BPA and BPAF reduced RACK1 expression, BPS was able to increase it.

OBJECTIVE

Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the most commonly used chemicals in the manufacturing of polycarbonate plastics and plastic consumer products. Its endocrine disrupting (ED) potential and changes in European regulations have led to replacing BPA in many uses with structurally similar chemicals, like bisphenol AF (BPAF) and bisphenol S (BPS). However, emerging data indicated that bisphenol analogues may not be safer than BPA both in toxic effects and ED potential.

METHODS

THP-1 cell line and peripheral blood mononuclear cells were activated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and ionomycin.

RESULTS

BPA and BPAF decreased LPS-induced expression of surface markers and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, while BPS increased LPS-induced expression of CD86 and cytokines. BPA, BPAF, and BPS affected PMA/ionomycin-induced T helper differentiation and cytokine release with gender-related alterations in some parameters investigated.

CONCLUSION

Data confirm that bisphenols can modulate immune cell differentiation and activation, further supporting their immunotoxic effects.

Exposure to Microplastics during Early Developmental Stage: Review of Current Evidence

In the last few decades, microplastics (MPs) have been among the emerging environmental pollutants that have received serious attention from scientists and the general population due to their wide range of potentially harmful effects on living organisms. MPs may originate from primary sources (micro-sized plastics manufactured on purpose) and secondary sources (breakdown of large plastic items through physical, chemical, and biological processes). Consequently, serious concerns are escalating because MPs can be easily disseminated and contaminate environments, including terrestrial, air, groundwater, marine, and freshwater systems. Furthermore, an exposure to even low doses of MPs during the early developmental stage may induce long-term health effects, even later in life. Accordingly, this study aims to gather the current evidence regarding the effects of MPs exposure on vital body systems, including the digestive, reproductive, central nervous, immune, and circulatory systems, during the early developmental stage. In addition, this study provides essential information about the possible emergence of various diseases later in life (i.e., adulthood).

Effects of mammalian target of rapamycin and aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediating autophagy signaling on the balance of Th17/Treg cells during perinatal bisphenol A exposure in female offspring mice

Bisphenol A (BPA)'s immunotoxic properties have received increasing interest, which can lead to immune dysfunction and related disease development. However, the mechanism is not completely clear. A growing body of evidence suggests that autophagy has important roles in innate immunity, inflammatory response, and adaptive immunity. This study aimed to investigate the possible mechanisms of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), and autophagy in Treg/Th17 imbalance induced by perinatal BPA exposure. Our results showed that the number of Th17 cells in the spleen of offspring female mice significantly increased, while the number of Treg cells decreased significantly, which was consistent with the expression levels of up-regulation of RORγt protein and a down-regulation Foxp3 protein. The levels of mTOR, p-mTOR, P62, and AhR protein expression increased, and LC3 protein decreased in spleen. However, in the thymus, we found that RORγt and Foxp3 proteins changed most significantly in the low-dose BPA group, and the same as p-mTOR and P62 protein levels. We conjectured that the potential mechanism of the imbalance of Th17/Treg upon perinatal exposure to BPA was probably associated with autophagy dysfunction. Proper autophagy plays an important role in maintaining the homeostasis of the thymic and spleen immune system.

Shaoyao-Gancao Decoction Promoted Microglia M2 Polarization via the IL-13-Mediated JAK2/STAT6 Pathway to Alleviate Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Microglia in the penumbra shifted from M2 to M1 phenotype between 3 and 5 days after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, which promoted local inflammation and injury. Shaoyao-Gancao Decoction (SGD) has been found to result in a significant upregulation of IL-13 in the penumbra, which has been shown to induce polarization of M2 microglia. There was thus a hypothesis that SGD could exert an anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effect by activating IL-13 to induce microglia polarization towards M2 phenotype, and the purpose of this study was to explore the influence of SGD on microglia phenotype switching and its possible mechanism. Rats who received middle cerebral artery occlusion surgery (MCAO) were treated with SGD for 3 or 6 days, to investigate the therapeutic effect and the underlying mechanism of SGD for cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CI/RP). The results indicated that SGD improved neurobehavioral scores and reduced apoptosis. Furthermore, SGD significantly decreased M1 microglia and M1-like markers, but increased M2 microglia and M2 markers. Moreover, higher levels of IL-13 and ratios of p-JAK2/JAK2 and p-STAT6/STAT6 were found in the SGD group compared to the MCAO. In conclusion, it was verified that SGD prevented injury by driving microglia phenotypic switching from M1 to M2, probably via IL-13 and its downstream JAK2-STAT6 pathway. Given that no further validation tests were included in this study, it is necessary to conduct more experiments to confirm the reliability of the above results.

Identification of active and inactive agonists/antagonists of estrogen receptor based on Tox21 10K compound library: Binomial analysis and structure alert

Endocrine disrupting chemicals can mimic, block, or interfere with hormones in organisms and subsequently affect their development and reproduction, which has raised significant public concern over the past several decades. To investigate (quantitative) structure-activity relationship, 8280 compounds were compiled from the Tox21 10K compound library. The results show that 50% activity concentrations of agonists are poorly related to that of antagonists because many compounds have considerably different activity concentrations between the agonists and antagonists. Analysis on the chemical classes based on mode of action (MOA) reveals that estrogen receptor (ER) is not the main target site in the acute toxicity to aquatic organisms. Binomial analysis of active and inactive ER agonists/antagonists reveals that ER activity of compounds is dominated by octanol/water partition coefficient and excess molar refraction. The binomial equation developed from the two descriptors can classify well active and inactive ER chemicals with an overall prediction accuracy of 73%. The classification equation developed from the molecular descriptors indicates that estrogens react with the receptor through hydrophobic and π-n electron interactions. At the same time, molecular ionization, polarity, and hydrogen bonding ability can also affect the chemical ER activity. A decision tree developed from chemical structures and their applications reveals that many hormones, proton pump inhibitors, PAHs, progestin, insecticides, fungicides, steroid and chemotherapy medications are active ER agonists/antagonists. On the other hand, many monocyclic/nonaromatic chain compounds and herbicides are inactive ER compounds. The decision tree and binomial equation developed here are valuable tools to predict active and inactive ER compounds.

How microplastic components influence the immune system and impact on children health: Focus on cancer

BACKGROUND

As a result of human socioeconomic activity, industrial wastes have increased distressingly. Plastic pollution is globally distributed across the world due to its properties of buoyancy and durability. A big health hazard is the sorption of toxicants to plastic while traveling through the environment. Two broad classes of plastic-related chemicals are of critical concern for human health-bisphenols and phthalates. Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disruptor compound (EDC) with estrogenic activity. It is used in the production of materials that are used daily. The endocrine modulating activity of BPA and its effects on reproductive health has been widely studied. BPA also has effects on the immune system; however, they are poorly investigated and the available data are inconclusive. Phthalates are also EDCs used as plasticizers in a wide array of daily-use products. Since these compounds are not covalently bound to the plastic matrix, they easily leach out from it, leading to high human exposure. These compounds exert several cell effects through modulating different endocrine pathways, such as estrogen, androgen, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, and arylhydrocarbon receptor pathways. The exposure to both classes of plastic derivatives during critical periods has detrimental effects on human health.

METHODS

In this review, we have compiled the most important of their perinatal effects on the function of the immune system and their relationship to the development of different types of cancer.

RESULTS/CONCLUSION

The administration of bisphenols and phthalates during critical stages of development affects important immune system components, and the immune function; which might be related to the development of different diseases including cancer.