1
|
Althobaiti NA. Heavy metals exposure and Alzheimer's disease: Underlying mechanisms and advancing therapeutic approaches. Behav Brain Res 2024; 476:115212. [PMID: 39187176 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2024.115212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2024] [Revised: 08/19/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024]
Abstract
Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic are prevalent in the environment due to both natural and anthropogenic sources, leading to significant public health concerns. These heavy metals are known to cause damage to the nervous system, potentially leading to a range of neurological conditions including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis (MS), and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The present study examines the complex relationship between heavy metal exposure and AD, focusing on the underlying mechanisms of toxicity and potential therapeutic approaches. This review article highlights how these metals can impair brain function through mechanisms such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and neurotransmitter disruption, ultimately contributing to neurodegenerative diseases like AD. It also addresses the challenges in diagnosing heavy metal-induced cognitive impairments and emphasizes the need for further research to explore effective treatment strategies and preventive measures against heavy metal exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Norah A Althobaiti
- Biology Department, College of Science and Humanities, Shaqra University, Saudi Arabia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang H, Liu X, Chen Y, Li W, Ge Y, Liang H, Xu B, Li X. The regulatory role of miR-21 in ferroptosis by targeting FTH1 and the contribution of microglia-derived miR-21 in exosomes to arsenic-induced neuronal ferroptosis. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 478:135580. [PMID: 39186845 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2024] [Revised: 08/06/2024] [Accepted: 08/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024]
Abstract
Arsenic is recognized as a hazardous environmental toxicant strongly associated with neurological damage, but the mechanism is ambiguous. Neuronal cell death is one of the mechanisms of arsenic-induced neurological injury. Ferroptosis is involved in the pathophysiological process of many neurological diseases, however, the role and regulatory mechanism of ferroptosis in nerve injury under arsenic exposure remains uncovered. Our findings confirmed the role of ferroptosis in arsenic-induced learning and memory disorder and revealed miR-21 played a regulatory role in neuronal ferroptosis. Further study discovered that miR-21 regulated neuronal ferroptosis by targeting at FTH1, a finding which has not been documented before. We also found an extra increase of ferroptosis in neuronal cells conditionally cultured by medium collected from arsenic-exposed microglial cells when compared with neuronal cells directly exposed to the same dose of arsenic. Moreover, microglia-derived exosomes removal or miR-21 knockdown in microglia inhibited neuronal ferroptosis, suggesting the role of intercellular communication in the promotion of neuronal ferroptosis. In summary, our findings highlighted the regulatory role of miR-21 in ferroptosis and the contribution of microglia-derived miR-21 in exosomes to arsenic-induced neuronal ferroptosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huanhuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; The Key Laboratory of Liaoning Province on Toxic and Biological Effects of Arsenic, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122
| | - Xudan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; The Key Laboratory of Liaoning Province on Toxic and Biological Effects of Arsenic, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122
| | - Yao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; The Key Laboratory of Liaoning Province on Toxic and Biological Effects of Arsenic, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122
| | - Wanying Li
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; The Key Laboratory of Liaoning Province on Toxic and Biological Effects of Arsenic, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122
| | - Yanhong Ge
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; The Key Laboratory of Liaoning Province on Toxic and Biological Effects of Arsenic, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122
| | - Huning Liang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; The Key Laboratory of Liaoning Province on Toxic and Biological Effects of Arsenic, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122
| | - Bin Xu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122.
| | - Xin Li
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; The Key Laboratory of Liaoning Province on Toxic and Biological Effects of Arsenic, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122; Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China, 110122.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hamedani SG, Pourmasoumi M, Askari G, Bagherniya M, Sathyapalan T, Sahebkar A. An Investigation into the Effects of Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Herbal Compounds on Neuroglobin: A Literature Review. Curr Med Chem 2024; 31:2944-2954. [PMID: 37069714 DOI: 10.2174/0929867330666230413093409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2023]
Abstract
Neuroglobin (Ngb) is an oxygen-binding globin protein that is mainly expressed in the neurons of the central and peripheral nervous system. However, moderate levels of Ngb have also been detected in non-neural tissues. Ngb and Ngb modulating factors have been increasingly studied over the last decade due to their neuroprotective role in neurological disorders and hypoxia. Studies have shown that a number of chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and herbal compounds can modulate the expression of Ngb at different dose levels, indicating a protective role against neurodegenerative diseases. Iron chelators, hormones, antidiabetic drugs, anticoagulants, antidepressants, plant derivatives and short-chain fatty acids are among these compounds. Therefore, this study aimed to review the literature focused on the possible effects and mechanisms of chemical, pharmaceutical, and herbal compounds on Ngbs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Golpour Hamedani
- Department of Community Nutrition, School of Nutrition and Food Science, Isfahan University of Medical Science, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Makan Pourmasoumi
- Gastrointestinal & Liver Diseases Research Center, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Askari
- Nutrition and Food Security Research Center and Department of Community Nutrition, School of Nutrition and Food Science, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
- Anesthesia and Critical Care Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Bagherniya
- Nutrition and Food Security Research Center and Department of Community Nutrition, School of Nutrition and Food Science, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
- Anesthesia and Critical Care Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Thozhukat Sathyapalan
- Department of Academic Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Hull, UK
| | - Amirhossein Sahebkar
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
- Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Peng J, Dai X, Fan H, Xing C, Zhuang Y, Gao X, Cao H, Hu G, Yang F. Mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes participate mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress caused by copper in duck kidney. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023:10.1007/s11356-023-27924-z. [PMID: 37253910 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-27924-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Copper (Cu) can be harmful to host physiology at high levels, although it is still unclear exactly how it causes nephrotoxicity. Mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress are associated with heavy metal intoxication. Meanwhile, mitochondria and ER are connected via mitochondria-associated ER membranes (MAM). In order to reveal the crosstalk between them, a total of 144 1-day-old Peking ducks were randomly divided into four groups: control (basal diet), 100 mg/kg Cu, 200 mg/kg Cu, and 400 mg/kg Cu groups. Results found that excessive Cu disrupted MAM integrity, reduced the co-localization of IP3R and VDAC1, and significantly changed the MAM-related factors levels (Grp75, Mfn2, IP3R, MCU, PACS2, and VDAC1), leading to MAM dysfunction. We further found that Cu exposure induced mitochondrial dysfunction via decreasing the ATP level and the expression levels of COX4, TOM20, SIRT1, and OPA1 and up-regulating Parkin expression level. Meanwhile, Cu exposure dramatically increased the expression levels of Grp78, CRT, and ATF4, resulting in ER stress. Overall, these findings demonstrated MAM plays the critical role in Cu-induced kidney mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress, which deepened our understanding of Cu-induced nephrotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junjun Peng
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Economic and Technological Development District, Jiangxi Agricultural University, No. 1101 Zhimin Avenue, Nanchang, 330045, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xueyan Dai
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Economic and Technological Development District, Jiangxi Agricultural University, No. 1101 Zhimin Avenue, Nanchang, 330045, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Huiqin Fan
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Economic and Technological Development District, Jiangxi Agricultural University, No. 1101 Zhimin Avenue, Nanchang, 330045, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Chenghong Xing
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Economic and Technological Development District, Jiangxi Agricultural University, No. 1101 Zhimin Avenue, Nanchang, 330045, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Zhuang
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Economic and Technological Development District, Jiangxi Agricultural University, No. 1101 Zhimin Avenue, Nanchang, 330045, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaona Gao
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Economic and Technological Development District, Jiangxi Agricultural University, No. 1101 Zhimin Avenue, Nanchang, 330045, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Huabin Cao
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Economic and Technological Development District, Jiangxi Agricultural University, No. 1101 Zhimin Avenue, Nanchang, 330045, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Guoliang Hu
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Economic and Technological Development District, Jiangxi Agricultural University, No. 1101 Zhimin Avenue, Nanchang, 330045, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Fan Yang
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Economic and Technological Development District, Jiangxi Agricultural University, No. 1101 Zhimin Avenue, Nanchang, 330045, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Shayan M, Barangi S, Hosseinzadeh H, Mehri S. The protective effect of natural or chemical compounds against arsenic-induced neurotoxicity: Cellular and molecular mechanisms. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 175:113691. [PMID: 36871878 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Arsenic is a notorious metalloid that exists in the earth's crust and is considered toxic for humans and the environment. Both cancerous and non-cancerous complications are possible after arsenic exposure. Target organs include the liver, lungs, kidney, heart, and brain. Arsenic-induced neurotoxicity, the main focus of our study, can occur in central and peripheral nervous systems. Symptoms can develop in a few hours, weeks, or years depending on the quantity of arsenic and the duration of exposure. In this review, we aimed to gather all the compounds, natural and chemical, that have been studied as protective agents in cellular, animal, and human reports. Oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation are frequently described as destructive mechanisms in heavy metal toxicity. Moreover, reduced activity of acetylcholinesterase, the altered release of monoamine neurotransmitters, down-regulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, and decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor are important underlying mechanisms of arsenic-induced neurotoxicity. As for neuroprotection, though some compounds have yet limited data, there are others, such as curcumin, resveratrol, taurine, or melatonin which have been studied more deeply and might be closer to a reliable protective agent. We collected the available information on all protective agents and the mechanisms by which they fight against arsenic-induced neurotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mersedeh Shayan
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Samira Barangi
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Hossein Hosseinzadeh
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Soghra Mehri
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhang Z, Pi R, Jiang Y, Ahmad M, Luo H, Luo J, Yang J, Sun B. Cathepsin B mediates the lysosomal-mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in arsenic-induced microglial cell injury. Hum Exp Toxicol 2023; 42:9603271231172724. [PMID: 37154515 DOI: 10.1177/09603271231172724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Arsenic is a prevalent environmental pollutant that targets the nervous system of living beings. Recent studies indicated that microglial injury could contribute to neuroinflammation and is associated with neuronal damage. Nevertheless, the neurotoxic mechanism underlying the arsenic-induced microglial injury requires additional research. This study explores whether cathepsin B promotes microglia cell damage caused by NaAsO2. Through CCK-8 assay and Annexin V-FITC and PI staining, we discovered that NaAsO2 induced apoptosis in BV2 cells (a microglia cell line). NaAsO2 was verified to increase mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MMP) and promote the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through JC-1 staining and DCFDA assay, respectively. Mechanically, NaAsO2 was indicated to increase the expression of cathepsin B, which could stimulate pro-apoptotic molecule Bid into the activated form, tBid, and increase lysosomal membrane permeabilization by Immunofluorescence and Western blot assessment. Subsequently, apoptotic signaling downstream of increased mitochondrial membrane permeabilization was activated, promoting caspase activation and microglial apoptosis. Cathepsin B inhibitor CA074-Me could mitigate the damage of microglial. In general, we found that NaAsO2 induced microglia apoptosis and depended on the role of the cathepsin B-mediated lysosomal-mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Our findings provided new insight into NaAsO2-induced neurological damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zheyu Zhang
- College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Ruozheng Pi
- College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Yuheng Jiang
- College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Mashaal Ahmad
- College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Heng Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Jieya Luo
- College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Jie Yang
- College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Baofei Sun
- College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Exertier C, Montemiglio LC, Freda I, Gugole E, Parisi G, Savino C, Vallone B. Neuroglobin, clues to function and mechanism. Mol Aspects Med 2021; 84:101055. [PMID: 34876274 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2021.101055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Neuroglobin is expressed in vertebrate brain and belongs to a branch of the globin family that diverged early in evolution. Sequence conservation and presence in nervous cells of several taxa suggests a relevant role in the nervous system, with tight structural restraints. Twenty years after its discovery, a rich scientific literature provides convincing evidence of the involvement of neuroglobin in sustaining neuron viability in physiological and pathological conditions however, a full and conclusive picture of its specific function, or set of functions is still lacking. The difficulty of unambiguously assigning a precise mechanism and biochemical role to neuroglobin might arise from the participation to one or more cell mechanism that redundantly guarantee the functioning of the highly specialized and metabolically demanding central nervous system of vertebrates. Here we collect findings and hypotheses arising from recent biochemical, biophysical, structural, in cell and in vivo experimental work on neuroglobin, aiming at providing an overview of the most recent literature. Proteins are said to have jobs and hobbies, it is possible that, in the case of neuroglobin, evolution has selected for it more than one job, and support to cover for its occasional failings. Disentangling the mechanisms and roles of neuroglobin is thus a challenging task that might be achieved by considering data from different disciplines and experimental approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Exertier
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biochimiche "A. Rossi Fanelli", Sapienza, Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Linda Celeste Montemiglio
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology, National Research Council, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Ida Freda
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biochimiche "A. Rossi Fanelli", Sapienza, Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Gugole
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biochimiche "A. Rossi Fanelli", Sapienza, Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Giacomo Parisi
- Center for Life Nanoscience, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Carmelinda Savino
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology, National Research Council, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Beatrice Vallone
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biochimiche "A. Rossi Fanelli", Sapienza, Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Exposure to Environmental Arsenic and Emerging Risk of Alzheimer's Disease: Perspective Mechanisms, Management Strategy, and Future Directions. TOXICS 2021; 9:toxics9080188. [PMID: 34437506 PMCID: PMC8402411 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9080188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the most prevailing neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by memory dysfunction and the presence of hyperphosphorylated tau and amyloid β (Aβ) aggregates in multiple brain regions, including the hippocampus and cortex. The exact etiology of AD has not yet been confirmed. However, epidemiological reports suggest that populations who were exposed to environmental hazards are more likely to develop AD than those who were not. Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring environmental risk factor abundant in the Earth’s crust, and human exposure to As predominantly occurs through drinking water. Convincing evidence suggests that As causes neurotoxicity and impairs memory and cognition, although the hypothesis and molecular mechanism of As-associated pathobiology in AD are not yet clear. However, exposure to As and its metabolites leads to various pathogenic events such as oxidative stress, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunctions, ER stress, apoptosis, impaired protein homeostasis, and abnormal calcium signaling. Evidence has indicated that As exposure induces alterations that coincide with most of the biochemical, pathological, and clinical developments of AD. Here, we overview existing literature to gain insights into the plausible mechanisms that underlie As-induced neurotoxicity and the subsequent neurological deficits in AD. Prospective strategies for the prevention and management of arsenic exposure and neurotoxicity have also been discussed.
Collapse
|