Correspondence arising: Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in health non-sleep-deprived-subjects

Study drug use among university students in Western Australia: Results of a web survey and their policy and practice implications

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS

Recent research and anecdotal reports suggest increased use of 'study drugs' or cognitive enhancers (CE) by university students. Evidence suggests students who use CEs tend to perceive them as effective, but whether CEs improve cognition in healthy individuals is unclear and any drug use carries a risk of harm. Two previous studies have investigated the prevalence of use in Australian university student samples and neither assessed university system factors which may contribute to use.

DESIGN AND METHODS

During 2016, a convenience sample of 2133 18-29-year-old students across all five Western Australian universities completed a quantitative anonymous web survey targeting both users and non-users of CE.

RESULTS

Of the final sample, 7.9% reported use of a prescription drug for CE purposes in the last 12 months. Prescription CE use was predicted by greater frequency of illicit drug use and among students who reported they had not had a take-home exam in the last 12 months. Rates of use and predictors of over the counter (28.6%) and illicit drugs (2.4%) were predicted by different individual and contextual factors. There were high rates of reporting positive effects from CE use, but although negative effects were reported less commonly, they were not trivial.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

These findings have implications for university policy and university health services raising the issue with students and potentially providing clinical interventions addressing CE use. Further research should include representative samples and address both system and individual variables in understanding patterns of CE use among students.

In search of optimal psychoactivation: stimulants as cognitive performance enhancers

An increasing number of people, students in particular, seek substances that improve their cognitive functioning. The most popular group of pharmacological cognitive enhancers (PCEs) are stimulants. Available studies suggest a small beneficial effect of methylphenidate and amphetamine on memory, executive functions, and processing speed. However small, this effect can make the difference between success and failure. In recent years, research has focused on the additional beneficial effect on the emotional state, increased motivation, and placebo-induced cognitive enhancement. This paper briefly reviews the latest and most important research on the relationship between popular stimulants and cognitive enhancement. One cannot understand this relationship without understanding the Yerkes-Dodson law, which explains the relationship between the degree of arousal and performance. It suggests that the effect of stimulants is a dose-dependent continuum. This law has repeatedly been confirmed by studies in which an optimal level of psychoactivation for cognitive enhancement was obtained with low stimulant doses, whereas exceeding the effective dose resulted in cognitive deficits, psychomotor agitation, and addiction. A separate section has been devoted to modafinil, an increasingly popular stimulant that differs from the rest in neurochemical profile and behavioural effects.