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Stewart AJ, Pilgrim C, Raihani NJ. Resolving selfish and spiteful interdependent conflict. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20240295. [PMID: 38593846 PMCID: PMC11003781 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2024.0295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Interdependence occurs when individuals have a stake in the success or failure of others, such that the outcomes experienced by one individual also generate costs or benefits for others. Discussion on this topic has typically focused on positive interdependence (where gains for one individual result in gains for another) and on the consequences for cooperation. However, interdependence can also be negative (where gains for one individual result in losses for another), which can spark conflict. In this article, we explain when negative interdependence is likely to arise and, crucially, the role played by (mis)perception in shaping an individual's understanding of their interdependent relationships. We argue that, owing to the difficulty in accurately perceiving interdependence with others, individuals might often be mistaken about the stake they hold in each other's outcomes, which can spark needless, resolvable forms of conflict. We then discuss when and how reducing misperceptions can help to resolve such conflicts. We argue that a key mechanism for resolving interdependent conflict, along with better sources of exogenous information, is to reduce reliance on heuristics such as stereotypes when assessing the nature of our interdependent relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Charlie Pilgrim
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - Nichola J. Raihani
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AP, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland, 1011, New Zealand
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2
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Nichols R, Charbonneau M, Chellappoo A, Davis T, Haidle M, Kimbrough EO, Moll H, Moore R, Scott-Phillips T, Purzycki BG, Segovia-Martin J. Cultural evolution: A review of theoretical challenges. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2024; 6:e12. [PMID: 38516368 PMCID: PMC10955367 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2024.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The rapid growth of cultural evolutionary science, its expansion into numerous fields, its use of diverse methods, and several conceptual problems have outpaced corollary developments in theory and philosophy of science. This has led to concern, exemplified in results from a recent survey conducted with members of the Cultural Evolution Society, that the field lacks 'knowledge synthesis', is poorly supported by 'theory', has an ambiguous relation to biological evolution and uses key terms (e.g. 'culture', 'social learning', 'cumulative culture') in ways that hamper operationalization in models, experiments and field studies. Although numerous review papers in the field represent and categorize its empirical findings, the field's theoretical challenges receive less critical attention even though challenges of a theoretical or conceptual nature underlie most of the problems identified by Cultural Evolution Society members. Guided by the heterogeneous 'grand challenges' emergent in this survey, this paper restates those challenges and adopts an organizational style requisite to discussion of them. The paper's goal is to contribute to increasing conceptual clarity and theoretical discernment around the most pressing challenges facing the field of cultural evolutionary science. It will be of most interest to cultural evolutionary scientists, theoreticians, philosophers of science and interdisciplinary researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Nichols
- Department of Philosophy, CSU Fullerton, Fullerton, CA, USA
- Center for the Study of Human Nature, CSU Fullerton, Fullerton, CA, USA
| | - Mathieu Charbonneau
- Africa Institute for Research in Economics and Social Sciences, Université Mohammed VI Polytechnique, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Azita Chellappoo
- School of Social Sciences and Global Studies, Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Taylor Davis
- Department of Philosophy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Miriam Haidle
- Research Center ‘The Role of Culture in Early Expansions of Humans’, Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Erik O. Kimbrough
- Smith Institute for Political Economy and Philosophy, Chapman University, Orange, CA, USA
| | - Henrike Moll
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Richard Moore
- Department of Philosophy, University of Warwick, Coventry, England, UK
| | - Thom Scott-Phillips
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Institute for Logic, Cognition, Language & Information, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Benjamin Grant Purzycki
- Benjamin Grant Purzycki, Department of the Study of Religion, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jose Segovia-Martin
- M6 Polytechnic University, Rabat, Morocco
- Complex Systems Institute, Paris Île-de-France, Paris, France
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3
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Bendixen T, Lightner AD, Apicella C, Atkinson Q, Bolyanatz A, Cohen E, Handley C, Henrich J, Klocová EK, Lesorogol C, Mathew S, McNamara RA, Moya C, Norenzayan A, Placek C, Soler M, Vardy T, Weigel J, Willard AK, Xygalatas D, Lang M, Purzycki BG. Gods are watching and so what? Moralistic supernatural punishment across 15 cultures. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2023; 5:e18. [PMID: 37587943 PMCID: PMC10426076 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2023.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychological and cultural evolutionary accounts of human sociality propose that beliefs in punitive and monitoring gods that care about moral norms facilitate cooperation. While there is some evidence to suggest that belief in supernatural punishment and monitoring generally induce cooperative behaviour, the effect of a deity's explicitly postulated moral concerns on cooperation remains unclear. Here, we report a pre-registered set of analyses to assess whether perceiving a locally relevant deity as moralistic predicts cooperative play in two permutations of two economic games using data from up to 15 diverse field sites. Across games, results suggest that gods' moral concerns do not play a direct, cross-culturally reliable role in motivating cooperative behaviour. The study contributes substantially to the current literature by testing a central hypothesis in the evolutionary and cognitive science of religion with a large and culturally diverse dataset using behavioural and ethnographically rich methods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Coren Apicella
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Quentin Atkinson
- Department of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Emma Cohen
- Wadham College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Joseph Henrich
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | | | | | - Rita A. McNamara
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Cristina Moya
- Department of Anthropology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Ara Norenzayan
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Caitlyn Placek
- Department of Anthropology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA
| | - Montserrat Soler
- Ob/Gyn and Women's Health Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Tom Vardy
- Department of International Development, London School of Economics, London, UK
| | - Jonathan Weigel
- Haas School of Business, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | | | - Dimitris Xygalatas
- Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Martin Lang
- LEVYNA, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
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4
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Lightner AD, Pisor AC, Hagen EH. In need-based sharing, sharing is more important than need. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2023.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
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5
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Smith KM, Pisor AC, Aron B, Bernard K, Fimbo P, Kimesera R, Borgerhoff Mulder M. Friends near and afar, through thick and thin: Comparing contingency of help between close-distance and long-distance friends in Tanzanian fishing villages. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2022.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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6
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Conte TJ. Steppe Generosity: Kinship, social reputations, and perceived need drive generous giving in a non-anonymous allocation game among Mongolian pastoral nomads. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2022.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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7
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Zak PJ, Barraza JA, Hu X, Zahedzadeh G, Murray J. Predicting Dishonesty When the Stakes Are High: Physiologic Responses During Face-to-Face Interactions Identifies Who Reneges on Promises to Cooperate. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 15:787905. [PMID: 35177971 PMCID: PMC8845462 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.787905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trust is risky. The mere perception of strategically deceptive behavior that disguises intent or conveys unreliable information can inhibit cooperation. As gregariously social creatures, human beings would have evolved physiologic mechanisms to identify likely defectors in cooperative tasks, though these mechanisms may not cross into conscious awareness. We examined trust and trustworthiness in an ecological valid manner by (i) studying working-age adults, (ii) who make decisions with meaningful stakes, and (iii) permitting participants to discuss their intentions face-to-face prior to making private decisions. In order to identify why people fulfill or renege on their commitments, we measured neurophysiologic responses in blood and with electrodermal activity while participants interacted. Participants (mean age 32) made decisions in a trust game in which they could earn up to $530. Nearly all interactions produced promises to cooperate, although first decision-makers in the trust game reneged on 30.7% of their promises while second decision-makers reneged on 28%. First decision-makers who reneged on a promise had elevated physiologic stress using two measures (the change in adrenocorticotropin hormone and the change in skin conductance levels) during pre-decision communication compared to those who fulfilled their promises and had increased negative affect after their decisions. Neurophysiologic reactivity predicted who would cooperate or defect with 86% accuracy. While self-serving behavior is not rare, those who exhibit it are stressed and unhappy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J. Zak
- Center for Neuroeconomics Studies, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Paul J. Zak,
| | - Jorge A. Barraza
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Xinbo Hu
- Center for Neuroeconomics Studies, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA, United States
| | - Giti Zahedzadeh
- Center for Neuroeconomics Studies, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA, United States
| | - John Murray
- Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, United States
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8
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The Relative Importance of "Cooperative Context" and Kinship in Structuring Cooperative Behavior : A Comparative Study of Saami Reindeer Herders. HUMAN NATURE-AN INTERDISCIPLINARY BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 2021; 32:677-705. [PMID: 34669158 PMCID: PMC8526998 DOI: 10.1007/s12110-021-09416-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Kin relations have a strong theoretical and empirical basis for explaining cooperative behavior. Nevertheless, there is growing recognition that context—the cooperative environment of an individual—also shapes the willingness of individuals to cooperate. For nomadic pastoralists in Norway, cooperation among both kin and non-kin is an essential predictor for success. The northern parts of the country are characterized by a history of herder-herder competition exacerbating between-herder conflict, lack of trust, and subsequent coordination problems. In contrast, because of a history of herder-farmer competition, southern Norway is characterized by high levels of between-herder coordination and trust. This comparative study investigates the relative importance of “cooperative context” and kinship in structuring cooperative behavior using an experimental gift game. The main findings from this study were that in the South, a high level of cooperation around an individual pushes gifts to be distributed evenly among other herders. Nevertheless, kinship matters, since close kin give and receive larger gifts. In contrast, kinship seems to be the main factor affecting gift distribution in the North. Herders in the North are also concerned with distributing gifts equally, albeit limiting them to close kin: the level of intragroup cooperation drives gifts to be distributed evenly among other closely related herders. The observed regional contrasts in cooperative decisions fit with the different historical levels of conflict and trust in the two regions: whereas herders in the South are affected by both cooperative context and kinship, kinship seems to be the main determinant of cooperation in the North.
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Goodman JR, Ewald PW. The evolution of barriers to exploitation: Sometimes the Red Queen can take a break. Evol Appl 2021; 14:2179-2188. [PMID: 34603491 PMCID: PMC8477591 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We propose a general barrier theory as an evolutionary framework for understanding coevolutionary effects of conflicts of interest in natural and human systems. It is generalized from the barrier theory of cancer, which describes how cancer develops through the evasion of mechanisms, that block unregulated cellular reproduction and survival. Barriers are naturally evolved or artificially implemented mechanisms for blocking exploitation; restraints are mechanisms that impede but do not block exploitation. When conflicts of interest arise, selection will favor exploiters that are capable of overcoming barriers and restraints. When barriers are in place, they halt, at least temporarily, coevolutionary arms races (the Red Queen can stop running). Barriers occur in a broad spectrum of interactions characterized by conflicts of interest: barriers to cellular survival (apoptosis) and reproduction (cell cycle arrest) may block a virus from replicating its genome through reproduction of its host cell. Vaccines may completely protect against targeted pathogens. A plant may escape herbivory by evolving defensive chemicals that block herbivory. Obligate mutualisms may evolve when barriers to horizontal transmission favor symbionts that increasingly lose mechanisms that contribute to horizontal transmission. Here, we show how the barrier theory applies across a spectrum of natural and social systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R. Goodman
- Leverhulme Centre for Human Evolutionary StudiesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Paul W. Ewald
- Department of BiologyUniversity of LouisvilleLouisvilleKentuckyUSA
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10
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Akdeniz A, van Veelen M. The evolution of morality and the role of commitment. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2021; 3:e41. [PMID: 37588562 PMCID: PMC10427333 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2021.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
A considerable share of the literature on the evolution of human cooperation considers the question why we have not evolved to play the Nash equilibrium in prisoners' dilemmas or public goods games. In order to understand human morality and pro-social behaviour, we suggest that it would actually be more informative to investigate why we have not evolved to play the subgame perfect Nash equilibrium in sequential games, such as the ultimatum game and the trust game. The 'rationally irrational' behaviour that can evolve in such games gives a much better match with actual human behaviour, including elements of morality such as honesty, responsibility and sincerity, as well as the more hostile aspects of human nature, such as anger and vengefulness. The mechanism at work here is commitment, which does not need population structure, nor does it need interactions to be repeated. We argue that this shift in focus can not only help explain why humans have evolved to know wrong from right, but also why other animals, with similar population structures and similar rates of repetition, have not evolved similar moral sentiments. The suggestion that the evolutionary function of morality is to help us commit to otherwise irrational behaviour stems from the work of Robert Frank (American Economic Review, 77(4), 593-604, 1987; Passions within reason: The strategic role of the emotions, WW Norton, 1988), which has played a surprisingly modest role in the scientific debate to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aslihan Akdeniz
- University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 11, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Tinbergen Institute, Gustav Mahlerplein 117, 1082 MS Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Matthijs van Veelen
- University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 11, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Tinbergen Institute, Gustav Mahlerplein 117, 1082 MS Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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11
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Cronk L, Aktipis A. Design principles for risk-pooling systems. Nat Hum Behav 2021; 5:825-833. [PMID: 34045721 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-021-01121-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
In times of crisis, risk pooling can enhance the resilience of individuals, households and communities. Risk-pooling systems are most effective when their participants adhere to several principles: (1) participants should agree that the pool is for needs that arise unpredictably, not for routine, predictable needs; (2) giving to those in need should not create an obligation for them to repay; (3) participants should not be expected to help others until they have taken care of their own needs; (4) participants should have a consensus about what constitutes need; (5) resources should be either naturally visible or made visible to reduce cheating; (6) individuals should be able to decide which partners to accept; and (7) the scale of the network should be large enough to cover the scale of risks. We discuss the cultural and evolutionary foundations of risk-pooling systems, their vulnerabilities and their relationship to commercial insurance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Cronk
- Department of Anthropology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA.
| | - Athena Aktipis
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
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12
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Cronk L, Guevara Beltrán D, Mercado DL, Aktipis A. "A Solidarity-Type World": Need-Based Helping among Ranchers in the Southwestern United States. HUMAN NATURE (HAWTHORNE, N.Y.) 2021; 32:482-508. [PMID: 34240310 DOI: 10.1007/s12110-021-09406-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
To better understand risk management and mutual aid among American ranchers, we interviewed and mailed a survey to ranchers in Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and Cochise County, Arizona, focusing on two questions: (1) When do ranchers expect repayment for the help they provide others? (2) What determines ranchers' degrees of involvement in networks of mutual aid, which they refer to as "neighboring"? When needs arise due to unpredictable events, such as injuries, most ranchers reported not expecting to be paid back for the help they provide. When help is provided for something that follows a known schedule or that can be scheduled, such as branding, most ranchers did expect something in return for the help they provide. This pattern makes sense in light of computational modeling that shows that transfers to those in need without expectations of repayment pool risk more effectively than transfers that create debt. Ranchers reported helping other ranchers more often when they belonged to more religious and civic organizations, when they owned larger ranches, when they relied less on ranch vs. other income, and when they had more relatives in the area. Operators of midsize ranches reported helping other ranchers more frequently than did those on smaller and larger ranches. None of our independent variables predicted how many times ranchers reported receiving help from other ranchers. Although ranch culture in the American West is often characterized by an ethic of individualism and independence, our study suggests that this ethic stands alongside an ethic of mutual aid during times of need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Cronk
- Department of Anthropology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901-1414, USA.
| | | | - Denise Laya Mercado
- Department of Anthropology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901-1414, USA
| | - Athena Aktipis
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
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13
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Will M, Groeneveld J, Frank K, Müller B. Informal risk-sharing between smallholders may be threatened by formal insurance: Lessons from a stylized agent-based model. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0248757. [PMID: 33739990 PMCID: PMC7978336 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Microinsurance is promoted as a valuable instrument for low-income households to buffer financial losses due to health or climate-related risks. However, apart from direct positive effects, such formal insurance schemes can have unintended side effects when insured households lower their contribution to traditional informal arrangements where risk is shared through private monetary support. Using a stylized agent-based model, we assess impacts of microinsurance on the resilience of those smallholders in a social network who cannot afford this financial instrument. We explicitly include the decision behavior regarding informal transfers. We find that the introduction of formal insurance can have negative side effects even if insured households are willing to contribute to informal risk arrangements. However, when many households are simultaneously affected by a shock, e.g. by droughts or floods, formal insurance is a valuable addition to informal risk-sharing. By explicitly taking into account long-term effects of short-term transfer decisions, our study allows to complement existing empirical research. The model results underline that new insurance programs have to be developed in close alignment with established risk-coping instruments. Only then can they be effective without weakening functioning aspects of informal risk management, which could lead to increased poverty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meike Will
- Department of Ecological Modelling, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Jürgen Groeneveld
- Department of Ecological Modelling, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Karin Frank
- Department of Ecological Modelling, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Environmental Systems Research (IUSF), University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Birgit Müller
- Department of Ecological Modelling, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
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14
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van Baar JM, Klaassen FH, Ricci F, Chang LJ, Sanfey AG. Stable distribution of reciprocity motives in a population. Sci Rep 2020; 10:18164. [PMID: 33097738 PMCID: PMC7584663 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-74818-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary models show that human cooperation can arise through direct reciprocity relationships. However, it remains unclear which psychological mechanisms proximally motivate individuals to reciprocate. Recent evidence suggests that the psychological motives for choosing to reciprocate trust differ between individuals, which raises the question whether these differences have a stable distribution in a population or are rather an artifact of the experimental task. Here, we combine data from three independent trust game studies to find that the relative prevalence of different reciprocity motives is highly stable across participant samples. Furthermore, the distribution of motives is relatively unaffected by changes to the salient features of the experimental paradigm. Finally, the motive classification assigned by our computational modeling analysis corresponds to the participants' own subjective experience of their psychological decision process, and no existing models of social preference can account for the observed individual differences in reciprocity motives. These findings support the view that reciprocal decision-making is not just regulated by individual differences in 'pro-social' versus 'pro-self' tendencies, but also by trait-like differences across several alternative pro-social motives, whose distribution in a population is stable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen M van Baar
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Felix H Klaassen
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Filippo Ricci
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Utrecht School of Economics, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Luke J Chang
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Alan G Sanfey
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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15
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Naar N. Gaming Anthropology: The Problem of External Validity and the Challenge of Interpreting Experimental Games. AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/aman.13483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Naar
- Washington Sea Grant 3716 Brooklyn Avenue N.E. Seattle WA 98105‐6716 USA
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16
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Napitupulu L, Bouma J, Graham S, Reyes-García V. Can Development Programs Shape Cooperation? : Results from a Framed Field Experiment in Indonesia. HUMAN NATURE-AN INTERDISCIPLINARY BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 2020; 31:174-195. [PMID: 32613541 DOI: 10.1007/s12110-020-09369-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Empirical studies among small-scale societies show that participation in national development programs impact traditional norms of community cooperation. We explore the extent to which varying levels of village and individual involvement in development policies relate to voluntary cooperation within community settings. We used a field experiment conducted in seven villages (208 participants) from an indigenous society in Indonesia known for their strong traditional cooperative norms, the Punan Tubu. We framed the experiment in terms of an ongoing government house-building program. The results indicate that there were synergistic and antagonistic interactions between existing cooperative norms and government development policies. Participants' cooperation in the experimental setting was low, probably because the Punan Tubu are used to cooperating and sharing both under demand and in a context in which uncooperative behavior is largely unpunished. Variation in experimental behavior was related to both village- and individual-level variables, with participants living in resettlement villages and participants living in a house constructed under the government program displaying more cooperative behavior. The cooperation evident in resettled villages may indicate that people in these villages are more comfortable interacting in anonymous settings and less committed to the demand-sharing norms still prevalent in the upstream villages. The more cooperative behavior among villagers who have previously received a house might indicate that they recognize that they are now better off than others and feel more obliged to cooperate. Policies aiming to capitalize on existing cooperative behavior to stimulate community collective action should consider the specific conditions under which cooperation occurs in real settings since traditional norms that regulate cooperative behavior might not translate well to cooperation in government-led programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucentezza Napitupulu
- Institut de Ciència Tecnología Ambientals (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Edifici Z, Carrer de Les Columnes, E-08193, Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Economics, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
| | - Jetske Bouma
- The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL), The Hague, Netherlands
| | - Sonia Graham
- Institut de Ciència Tecnología Ambientals (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Edifici Z, Carrer de Les Columnes, E-08193, Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Victoria Reyes-García
- Institut de Ciència Tecnología Ambientals (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Edifici Z, Carrer de Les Columnes, E-08193, Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain. .,Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain.
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Pisor AC, Gervais MM, Purzycki BG, Ross CT. Preferences and constraints: the value of economic games for studying human behaviour. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:192090. [PMID: 32742683 PMCID: PMC7353969 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.192090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
As economic games have spread from experimental economics to other social sciences, so too have critiques of their usefulness for drawing inferences about the 'real world'. What these criticisms often miss is that games can be used to reveal individuals' private preferences in ways that observational and interview data cannot; furthermore, economic games can be designed such that they do provide insights into real-world behaviour. Here, we draw on our collective experience using economic games in field contexts to illustrate how researchers can strategically alter the framing or design of economic games to draw inferences about private-world or real-world preferences. A detailed case study from coastal Colombia provides an example of the subtleties of game design and how games can be combined fruitfully with self-report data. We close with a list of concrete recommendations for how to modify economic games to better match particular research questions and research contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne C. Pisor
- Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4910, USA
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology, and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 LeipzigGermany
| | | | - Benjamin G. Purzycki
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology, and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 LeipzigGermany
- Department of the Study of Religion, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Cody T. Ross
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology, and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 LeipzigGermany
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Smith D. Cultural group selection and human cooperation: a conceptual and empirical review. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2020; 2:e2. [PMID: 37588374 PMCID: PMC10427285 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2020.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cultural group selection has been proposed as an explanation for humans' highly cooperative nature. This theory argues that social learning mechanisms, combined with rewards and punishment, can stabilise any group behaviour, cooperative or not. Equilibrium selection can then operate, resulting in cooperative groups outcompeting less-cooperative groups. This process may explain the widespread cooperation between non-kin observed in humans, which is sometimes claimed to be altruistic. This review explores the assumptions of cultural group selection to assess whether it provides a convincing explanation for human cooperation. Although competition between cultural groups certainly occurs, it is unclear whether this process depends on specific social learning mechanisms (e.g. conformism) or a norm psychology (to indiscriminately punish norm-violators) to stabilise groups at different equilibria as proposed by existing cultural group selection models. Rather than unquestioningly adopt group norms and institutions, individuals and groups appear to evaluate, design and shape them for self-interested reasons (where possible). As individual fitness is frequently tied to group fitness, this often coincides with constructing group-beneficial norms and institutions, especially when groups are in conflict. While culture is a vital component underlying our species' success, the extent to which current conceptions of cultural group selection reflect human cooperative evolution remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Smith
- Bristol Medical School, Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, BristolBS8 2BN, UK
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Boesch L, Berger R. Explaining Fairness : Results from an Experiment in Guinea. HUMAN NATURE (HAWTHORNE, N.Y.) 2019; 30:398-421. [PMID: 31729693 DOI: 10.1007/s12110-019-09353-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Fairness is undoubtedly an essential normative concept in humans and promotes cooperation in human societies. The fact that fairness exists is puzzling, however, because it works against the short-term interest of individuals. Theories of genetic evolution, cultural evolution, and gene-culture coevolution identify plausible mechanisms for the evolution of fairness in humans. Such mechanisms include kin selection, the support of group-beneficial moral norms through ethnic markers, free partner choice with equal outside options, and free partner choice with reputation as well as spite in small populations. Here, we present the results of a common-pool resource game experiment on sharing. Based on data from 37 multiethnic villages in a subsistence agricultural population in Foutah Djallon, Guinea, we show that fair behavior in our experiment increased with increasing ethnic homogeneity and market integration. Group size and kinship had the opposite effect. Overall, fair behavior was not conditional on reputation. Instead, the ability of the different village populations to support individuals' fairness in situations lacking the opportunity to build a positive reputation varied significantly. Our results suggest that evolutionary theory provides a useful framework for the analysis of fairness in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Boesch
- Institut für Soziologie, Universität Leipzig, Beethovenstr. 15, 04107, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Roger Berger
- Institut für Soziologie, Universität Leipzig, Beethovenstr. 15, 04107, Leipzig, Germany
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Abstract
Trust is fundamental for the stability of human society. A large part of the experimental literature relies on the Trust Game as the workhorse to measure individual differences in trust and trustworthiness. In this review we highlight the difficulties and limitations of this popular paradigm, as well as the relations to alternative instruments ranging from survey measures to neurochemical manipulations and neuroimaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Alós-Ferrer
- Department of Economics, Zurich Center for Neuroeconomics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Federica Farolfi
- Department of Economics, Zurich Center for Neuroeconomics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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White CJ, Kelly JM, Shariff AF, Norenzayan A. Supernatural norm enforcement: Thinking about karma and God reduces selfishness among believers. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Cronk L, Aktipis A, Gazzillo S, White D, Wutich A, Sopher B. Common knowledge promotes risk pooling in an experimental economic game. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0220682. [PMID: 31415599 PMCID: PMC6695222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Risk management is a problem humans have faced throughout history and across societies. One way to manage risk is to transfer it to other parties through formal and informal insurance systems. One informal method of self-insurance is limited risk pooling, where individuals can ask for help only when in need. Models suggest that need-based transfer systems may require coordination and common knowledge to be effective. To explore the impact of common knowledge on social coordination and risk pooling in volatile environments, we designed and ran a Risk Pooling Game. We compared participants who played the game with no advance priming or framing to participants who read one of two texts describing real-world systems of risk pooling. Players in the primed games engaged in more repetitive asking and repetitive giving than those in the control games. Players in the primed games also gave more in response to requests and were more likely to respond positively to requests than players in the control games. In addition, players in the primed games were more tolerant of wide differences between what the two players gave and received. These results suggest that the priming texts led players to pay less attention to debt and repayment and more attention to the survival of the other player, and thus to more risk pooling. These results are consistent with findings from fieldwork in small-scale societies that suggest that humans use need-based transfer systems to pool risk when environmental volatility leads to needs with unpredictable timing. Models suggest that the need-based transfer strategy observed in this experiment can outperform debt-based strategies. The results of the present study suggest that the suite of behaviors associated with need-based transfers is an easily triggered part of the human behavioral repertoire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Cronk
- Department of Anthropology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Athena Aktipis
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Steven Gazzillo
- Department of Economics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Dave White
- Decision Center for a Desert City, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Amber Wutich
- School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Barry Sopher
- Department of Economics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
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Geoffroy F, Baumard N, André JB. Why cooperation is not running away. J Evol Biol 2019; 32:1069-1081. [PMID: 31298759 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A growing number of experimental and theoretical studies show the importance of partner choice as a mechanism to promote the evolution of cooperation, especially in humans. In this paper, we focus on the question of the precise quantitative level of cooperation that should evolve under this mechanism. When individuals compete to be chosen by others, their level of investment in cooperation evolves towards higher values, a process called competitive altruism, or runaway cooperation. Using a classic adaptive dynamics model, we first show that when the cost of changing partner is low, this runaway process can lead to a profitless escalation of cooperation. In the extreme, when partner choice is entirely frictionless, cooperation even increases up to a level where its cost entirely cancels out its benefit. That is, at evolutionary equilibrium, individuals gain the same payoff than if they had not cooperated at all. Second, importing models from matching theory in economics we, however, show that when individuals can plastically modulate their choosiness in function of their own cooperation level, partner choice stops being a runaway competition to outbid others and becomes a competition to form the most optimal partnerships. In this case, when the cost of changing partner tends towards zero, partner choice leads to the evolution of the socially optimum level of cooperation. This last result could explain the observation that human cooperation seems to be often constrained by considerations of social efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Geoffroy
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution, UMR 5554 - CNRS - Université Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Nicolas Baumard
- Institut Jean-Nicod (CNRS - EHESS - ENS), Département d'Etudes Cognitives, Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Baptiste André
- Institut Jean-Nicod (CNRS - EHESS - ENS), Département d'Etudes Cognitives, Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, Paris, France
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Muggleton NK, Tarran SR, Fincher CL. Who punishes promiscuous women? Both women and men are prejudiced towards sexually-accessible women, but only women inflict costly punishment. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Cronk L, Steklis D, Steklis N, van den Akker OR, Aktipis A. Kin terms and fitness interdependence. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Cronk L, Berbesque C, Conte T, Gervais M, Iyer P, McCarthy B, Sonkoi D, Townsend C, Aktipis A. Managing Risk Through Cooperation: Need-Based Transfers and Risk Pooling Among the Societies of the Human Generosity Project. STUDIES IN HUMAN ECOLOGY AND ADAPTATION 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-15800-2_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Thomas MG, Bårdsen BJ, Næss MW. The narrow gap between norms and cooperative behaviour in a reindeer herding community. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:171221. [PMID: 29515842 PMCID: PMC5830731 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.171221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Cooperation evolves on social networks and is shaped, in part, by norms: beliefs and expectations about the behaviour of others or of oneself. Networks of cooperative social partners and associated norms are vital for pastoralists, such as Saami reindeer herders in northern Norway. However, little is known quantitatively about how norms structure pastoralists' social networks or shape cooperation. Saami herders reported their social networks and participated in field experiments, allowing us to gauge the overlap between reported and emergent cooperation. We show that individuals' perceptions of reciprocal cooperation within their social networks exceeded actual reciprocity, although both occurred frequently and were concentrated within herding groups. Herders with more extensive cooperation networks received more rewards in an economic game. Although herders overestimated reciprocal helping, cooperation in this community was still extensive, suggesting that perceived norms potentially allow network structures promoting cooperation to emerge and be maintained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Gwynfryn Thomas
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), Arctic Ecology Department, Fram Centre, 9296 Tromsø, Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage (NIKU), High North Department, Fram Centre, 9296 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Bård-Jørgen Bårdsen
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), Arctic Ecology Department, Fram Centre, 9296 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Marius Warg Næss
- Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage (NIKU), High North Department, Fram Centre, 9296 Tromsø, Norway
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Mapping the terra incognita of economic cognition will require an experimental paradigm that incorporates context. Behav Brain Sci 2018; 41:e178. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x18000444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractResearchers, including Boyer & Petersen (B&P), commonly use experimental economic studies to draw their conclusions. These studies conventionally strip away context and present participants only with abstract rules. Because context is a strictly necessary component of the decision-making process, it is not clear that inferences about high-level folk psychological concepts (e.g., rationality) can be drawn from decontextualized economic games.
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32
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Lightner AD, Barclay P, Hagen EH. Radical framing effects in the ultimatum game: the impact of explicit culturally transmitted frames on economic decision-making. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:170543. [PMID: 29308218 PMCID: PMC5749986 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Many studies have documented framing effects in economic games. These studies, however, have tended to use minimal framing cues (e.g. a single sentence labelling the frame), and the frames did not involve unambiguous offer expectations. Results often did not differ substantially from those in the unframed games. Here we test the hypothesis that, in contrast to the modal offer in the unframed ultimatum game (UG) (e.g. 60% to the proposer and 40% to the responder), offers in a UG explicitly framed either as a currency exchange or a windfall will closely conform to expectations for the frame and diverge substantially from the modal offer. Participants recruited from MTurk were randomized into one of two conditions. In the control condition, participants played a standard UG. In the treatment conditions, players were provided a vignette explicitly describing the frame with their roles: some were customers and bankers in a currency exchange, and others were in a windfall scenario. We predicted (i) that modal offers in the currency exchange would involve an asymmetric split where greater than 80% went to customers and less than 20% went to bankers, and (ii) that variation in windfall offers would converge onto a 50-50 split with significantly less variation than the control condition. Our first prediction was confirmed with substantial effect sizes (d = 1.09 and d = -2.04), whereas we found no evidence for our second prediction. The first result provides further evidence that it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about economic decision-making from decontextualized games.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron D. Lightner
- Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Pat Barclay
- Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Edward H. Hagen
- Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
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33
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Leech BL, Cronk L. Coordinated policy action and flexible coalitional psychology: How evolution made humans so good at politics. COGN SYST RES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogsys.2017.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Novin S, Oyserman D. Honor as Cultural Mindset: Activated Honor Mindset Affects Subsequent Judgment and Attention in Mindset-Congruent Ways. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1921. [PMID: 28018263 PMCID: PMC5145876 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Honor values articulate gender roles, the importance of reputation in maintaining one’s place in society, and maintaining respect for the groups one belongs to. In that sense honor provides a template for organizing social interactions and hence may be functional even among people and societies that do not report valuing and endorsing honor. We test the prediction that honor influences judgment and attention when activated in two experiments (N = 538). Using a culture-as-situated cognition perspective, we predicted that activating one aspect of honor would activate other aspects, even among individuals who do not much endorse honor values. We tested these predictions among European Americans, a group that is not typically associated with honor values. In each study, participants were randomly assigned to experimental or control groups, which differed in one way: the experimental group read statements about honor values as a first step and the control group did not. Participants then judged stick-figure pairs (judging which is male; Study 1, n = 130) or made lexical decisions (judging whether a letter-string formed a correctly spelled word; Study 2, n = 408). In Study 1, experimental group participants were more likely to choose the visually agentic figure as male. In Study 2, experimental group participants were more accurate at noticing that the letter-string formed a word if the word was an honor-relevant word (e.g., noble), but they did not differ from the control group if the word was irrelevant to honor (e.g., happy). Participants in both studies were just above the neutral point in their endorsement of honor values. Individual differences in honor values endorsement did not moderate the effects of activating an honor mindset. Though honor is often described as if it is located in space, we did not find clear effects of where our letter strings were located on the computer screen. Our findings suggest a new way to consider how honor functions, even in societies in which honor is not a highly endorsed value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheida Novin
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands; Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann ArborMI, USA
| | - Daphna Oyserman
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles CA, USA
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Oyserman D. What does a priming perspective reveal about culture: culture-as-situated cognition. Curr Opin Psychol 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Aktipis A, de Aguiar R, Flaherty A, Iyer P, Sonkoi D, Cronk L. Cooperation in an Uncertain World: For the Maasai of East Africa, Need-Based Transfers Outperform Account-Keeping in Volatile Environments. HUMAN ECOLOGY: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL 2016; 44:353-364. [PMID: 27445430 PMCID: PMC4937096 DOI: 10.1007/s10745-016-9823-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Using an agent-based model to study risk-pooling in herder dyads using rules derived from Maasai osotua ("umbilical cord") relationships, Aktipis et al. (2011) found that osotua transfers led to more risk-pooling and better herd survival than both no transfers and transfers that occurred at frequencies tied to those seen in the osotua simulations. Here we expand this approach by comparing osotua-style transfers to another type of livestock transfer among Maasai known as esile ("debt"). In osotua, one asks if in need, and one gives in response to such requests if doing so will not threaten one's own survival. In esile relationships, accounts are kept and debts must be repaid. We refer to these as "need-based" and "account-keeping" systems, respectively. Need-based transfers lead to more risk pooling and higher survival than account keeping. Need-based transfers also lead to greater wealth equality and are game theoretically dominant to account-keeping rules.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Lee Cronk
- />Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ USA
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Aktipis A. Principles of cooperation across systems: from human sharing to multicellularity and cancer. Evol Appl 2015; 9:17-36. [PMID: 27087837 PMCID: PMC4780378 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
From cells to societies, several general principles arise again and again that facilitate cooperation and suppress conflict. In this study, I describe three general principles of cooperation and how they operate across systems including human sharing, cooperation in animal and insect societies and the massively large‐scale cooperation that occurs in our multicellular bodies. The first principle is that of Walk Away: that cooperation is enhanced when individuals can leave uncooperative partners. The second principle is that resource sharing is often based on the need of the recipient (i.e., need‐based transfers) rather than on strict account‐keeping. And the last principle is that effective scaling up of cooperation requires increasingly sophisticated and costly cheater suppression mechanisms. By comparing how these principles operate across systems, we can better understand the constraints on cooperation. This can facilitate the discovery of novel ways to enhance cooperation and suppress cheating in its many forms, from social exploitation to cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athena Aktipis
- Department of Psychology Center for Social Dynamics and Complexity Center for Evolution and Medicine Biodesign Institute Arizona State University Tempe AZ USA; Center for Evolution and Cancer University of California San Francisco San Francisco CA USA
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Hao Y, Armbruster D, Cronk L, Aktipis CA. Need-based transfers on a network: a model of risk-pooling in ecologically volatile environments. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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40
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Baird TD, Gray CL. Livelihood Diversification and Shifting Social Networks of Exchange: A Social Network Transition? WORLD DEVELOPMENT 2014; 60:14-30. [PMID: 31423047 PMCID: PMC6697137 DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In the developing world, traditional social networks of exchange and reciprocity are critical components of household security, disaster relief, and social wellbeing especially in rural areas. This research asks the question: How are traditional social networks of exchange related to emerging household strategies to diversify livelihoods? Within this context, this study uses a mixed methods design to examine the character of inter-household exchanges of material goods (IHE) and the association between IHE and livelihood diversification, in ethnically Maasai communities in northern Tanzania. Findings show that IHE are both evolving and declining and are negatively associated with livelihood diversification.
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Beyond Awareness and Self-Governance: Approaching Kavango Timber Users’ Real-Life Choices. LAND 2013. [DOI: 10.3390/land2030392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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A strange(r) analysis of morality: A consideration of relational context and the broader literature is needed. Behav Brain Sci 2013; 36:85-6. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x12000751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractBaumard et al.'s definition of morality is narrow and their review of empirical work on human cooperation is limited, focusing only on economic games, almost always involving strangers. We suggest that theorizing about mutualisms will benefit from considering extant empirical behavioral research far more broadly and especially from taking relational context into account.
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d’Alpoim Guedes J, Bestor TC, Carrasco D, Flad R, Fosse E, Herzfeld M, Lamberg-Karlovsky CC, Lewis CM, Liebmann M, Meadow R, Patterson N, Price M, Reiches M, Richardson S, Shattuck-Heidorn H, Ur J, Urton G, Warinner C. Is Poverty in Our Genes? CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1086/669034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Abstract
AbstractWhat makes humans moral beings? This question can be understood either as a proximate “how” question or as an ultimate “why” question. The “how” question is about the mental and social mechanisms that produce moral judgments and interactions, and has been investigated by psychologists and social scientists. The “why” question is about the fitness consequences that explain why humans have morality, and has been discussed by evolutionary biologists in the context of the evolution of cooperation. Our goal here is to contribute to a fruitful articulation of such proximate and ultimate explanations of human morality. We develop an approach to morality as an adaptation to an environment in which individuals were in competition to be chosen and recruited in mutually advantageous cooperative interactions. In this environment, the best strategy is to treat others with impartiality and to share the costs and benefits of cooperation equally. Those who offer less than others will be left out of cooperation; conversely, those who offer more will be exploited by their partners. In line with this mutualistic approach, the study of a range of economic games involving property rights, collective actions, mutual help and punishment shows that participants' distributions aim at sharing the costs and benefits of interactions in an impartial way. In particular, the distribution of resources is influenced by effort and talent, and the perception of each participant's rights on the resources to be distributed.
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Chudek M, Henrich J. Culture–gene coevolution, norm-psychology and the emergence of human prosociality. Trends Cogn Sci 2011; 15:218-26. [PMID: 21482176 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 297] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2011] [Revised: 03/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Abstract
AbstractWe suggest that there are two coordination games when it comes to understanding kin terminology. Jones' article focuses on the linguistic coordination inherent in developing meaningful kin terminologies, alluding briefly to the benefits of these kin terminologies for coordination in other domains. We enhance Jones' discussion by tracing the links between the structure of kin terminologies and their functions.
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Abstract
While we agree that the cultural imbalance in the recruitment of participants in psychology experiments is highly detrimental, we emphasize the need to complement this criticism with a warning about the "weirdness" of some cross-cultural studies showing seemingly deep cultural differences. We take the example of economic games and suggest that the variety of results observed in these games may not be due to deep psychological differences per se, but rather due to different interpretations of the situation.
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