Spatial distributions of AQP5 and AQP0 in embryonic and postnatal mouse lens development

Regulation of water flow in the ocular lens: new roles for aquaporins

The ocular lens is an important determinant of overall vision quality whose refractive and transparent properties change throughout life. The lens operates an internal microcirculation system that generates circulating fluxes of ions, water and nutrients that maintain the transparency and refractive properties of the lens. This flow of water generates a substantial hydrostatic pressure gradient which is regulated by a dual feedback system that uses the mechanosensitive channels TRPV1 and TRPV4 to sense decreases and increases, respectively, in the pressure gradient. This regulation of water flow (pressure) and hence overall lens water content, sets the two key parameters, lens geometry and the gradient of refractive index, which determine the refractive properties of the lens. Here we focus on the roles played by the aquaporin family of water channels in mediating lens water fluxes, with a specific focus on AQP5 as a regulated water channel in the lens. We show that in addition to regulating the activity of ion transporters, which generate local osmotic gradients that drive lens water flow, the TRPV1/4-mediated dual feedback system also modulates the membrane trafficking of AQP5 in the anterior influx pathway and equatorial efflux zone of the lens. Since both lens pressure and AQP5-mediated water permeability (P H 2 O ${P_{{{\mathrm{H}}_{\mathrm{2}}}{\mathrm{O}}}}$ ) can be altered by changes in the tension applied to the lens surface via modulating ciliary muscle contraction we propose extrinsic modulation of lens water flow as a potential mechanism to alter the refractive properties of the lens to ensure light remains focused on the retina throughout life.

Verification of the gene and protein expression of the aquaglyceroporin AQP3 in the mammalian lens

Transport of water is critical for maintaining the transparency of the avascular lens, and the lens is known to express at least five distinctly different water channels from the Aquaporin (AQP) family of proteins. In this study we report on the identification of a sixth lens AQP, AQP3 an aquaglyceroporin, which in addition to water also transports glycerol and H2O2. AQP3 was identified at the transcript level and protein levels using RT-PCR and Western blotting, respectively, in the mouse, rat, bovine and human lens, showing that its expression is conserved in the mammalian lens. Western blotting showed AQP3 in the lens exists as 25 kDa non-glycosylated and 37 kDa glycosylated monomeric forms in all lens species. To identify the regions in the lens where AQP3 is expressed Western blotting was repeated using epithelial, outer cortical and inner cortical/core fractions isolated from the mouse lens. AQP3 was found in all lens regions, with the highest signal of non-glycosylated AQP3 being found in the epithelium. While in the inner cortex/core region AQP3 signal was not only lower but was predominately from the glycosylated form of AQP3. Immunolabelling of lens sections with AQP3 antibodies confirmed that AQP3 is found in all regions of the adult mouse, and also revealed that the subcellular distribution of AQP3 changes as a function of fiber cell differentiation. In epithelial and peripheral fiber cells of the outer cortex AQP3 labelling was predominately associated with membrane vesicles in the cytoplasm, but in the deeper regions of the lens AQP3 labelling was associated with the plasma membranes of fiber cells located in the inner cortex and core of the lens. To determine how this adult pattern of AQP3 subcellular distribution was established, immunolabelling for AQP3 was performed on embryonic and postnatal lenses. AQP3 expression was first detected on embryonic day (E) 11 in the membranes of primary fiber cells that have started to elongate and fill the lumen of the lens vesicle, while later at E16 the AQP3 labelling in the primary fiber cells had shifted to a predominately cytoplasmic location. In the following postnatal (P) stages of lens growth at P3 and P6, AQP3 labelling remained cytoplasmic across all regions of the lens and it was not until P15 when the pattern of localisation of AQP3 changed to an adult distribution with cytoplasmic labelling detected in the outer cortex and membrane localisation detected in the inner cortex and core of the lens. Comparison of the AQP3 labelling pattern to those obtained previously for AQP0 and AQP5 showed that the subcellular distribution was more similar to AQP5 than AQP0, but there were still significant differences that suggest AQP3 may have unique roles in the maintenance of lens transparency.

AQP5 deficiency promotes the senescence of lens epithelial cells through mitochondrial dysfunction

Cataract is lens opacity, which is a common blinding eye disease worldwide. Aquaporin 5 (AQP5) is expressed in the human and mouse lenses. This study aimed to investigate the underlying mechanisms of AQP5 in the senescence of lens epithelial cells (LECs). Primary LECs were isolated and cultured from Aqp5+/+ and Aqp5-/- mice. Western blot or immunofluorescence staining of p16, Ki67, MitoSOX, JC-1 and phalloidin was used in the experiments to evaluate the changes in the primary LECs. The primary Aqp5-/- LECs showed increased p16 expression and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and activity, and cytoskeletal disorders. When the cells were pretreated with Mito-TEMPO, the Aqp5-/- mice showed decreased p16 expression, reduced mitochondrial dysfunction and cytoskeletal disorders. Our results revealed that AQP5 deficiency promotes the senescence of primary LECs through mitochondrial dysfunction. This provides a new perspective for the treatment of cataracts by regulating AQP5 expression.

Aquaporin 5 in the eye: Expression, function, and roles in ocular diseases

As a water channel protein, aquaporin 5 (AQP5) is essential for the maintenance of the normal physiological functions of ocular tissues. This review provides an overview of the expression and function of AQP5 in the eye and discusses their role in related eye diseases. Although AQP5 plays a vital role in ocular functions, such as maintaining corneal and lens transparency, regulating water movement, and maintaining homeostasis, some of its functions in ocular tissues are still unclear. Based on the key role of AQP5 in eye function, this review suggests that in the future, eye diseases may be treated by regulating the expression of aquaporin.

Modulation of Membrane Trafficking of AQP5 in the Lens in Response to Changes in Zonular Tension Is Mediated by the Mechanosensitive Channel TRPV1

In mice, the contraction of the ciliary muscle via the administration of pilocarpine reduces the zonular tension applied to the lens and activates the TRPV1-mediated arm of a dual feedback system that regulates the lens' hydrostatic pressure gradient. In the rat lens, this pilocarpine-induced reduction in zonular tension also causes the water channel AQP5 to be removed from the membranes of fiber cells located in the anterior influx and equatorial efflux zones. Here, we determined whether this pilocarpine-induced membrane trafficking of AQP5 is also regulated by the activation of TRPV1. Using microelectrode-based methods to measure surface pressure, we found that pilocarpine also increased pressure in the rat lenses via the activation of TRPV1, while pilocarpine-induced removal of AQP5 from the membrane observed using immunolabelling was abolished by pre-incubation of the lenses with a TRPV1 inhibitor. In contrast, mimicking the actions of pilocarpine by blocking TRPV4 and then activating TRPV1 resulted in sustained increase in pressure and the removal of AQP5 from the anterior influx and equatorial efflux zones. These results show that the removal of AQP5 in response to a decrease in zonular tension is mediated by TRPV1 and suggest that regional changes to PH2O contribute to lens hydrostatic pressure gradient regulation.

Aquaporin-5 Dynamic Regulation

Aquaporin-5 (AQP5), belonging to the aquaporins (AQPs) family of transmembrane water channels, facilitates osmotically driven water flux across biological membranes and the movement of hydrogen peroxide and CO₂. Various mechanisms have been shown to dynamically regulate AQP5 expression, trafficking, and function. Besides fulfilling its primary water permeability function, AQP5 has been shown to regulate downstream effectors playing roles in various cellular processes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge of the upstream and downstream effectors of AQP5 to gain an in-depth understanding of the physiological and pathophysiological processes involving AQP5.

Insight into the Mammalian Aquaporin Interactome

Aquaporins (AQPs) are a family of transmembrane water channels expressed in all living organisms. AQPs facilitate osmotically driven water flux across biological membranes and, in some cases, the movement of small molecules (such as glycerol, urea, CO₂, NH₃, H₂O₂). Protein-protein interactions play essential roles in protein regulation and function. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge of the AQP interactomes and addresses the molecular basis and functional significance of these protein-protein interactions in health and diseases. Targeting AQP interactomes may offer new therapeutic avenues as targeting individual AQPs remains challenging despite intense efforts.

Lens Aquaporin-5 Inserts Into Bovine Fiber Cell Plasma Membranes Via Unconventional Protein Secretion

Purpose

To spatially map aquaporin-5 (AQP5) expression in the bovine lens, molecularly characterize cytoplasmic AQP5-containing vesicles in the outer cortex, and elucidate AQP5 membrane trafficking mechanisms.

Methods

Immunofluorescence was performed on bovine lens cryosections using AQP5, TOMM20, COX IV, calnexin, LC3B, Sec22β, LIMP-2, and connexin 50 antibodies and the membrane dye CM-DiI. AQP5 plasma membrane insertion was defined via line expression profile analysis. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was performed on bovine lens sections to examine cytoplasmic organelle morphology and subcellular localization in cortical fiber cells. Bovine lenses were treated with 10-nM bafilomycin A1 or 0.1% dimethyl sulfoxide vehicle control for 24 hours in ex vivo culture to determine changes in AQP5 plasma membrane expression.

Results

Immunofluorescence analysis revealed cytoplasmic AQP5 expression in lens epithelial cells and differentiating fiber cells. In the lens cortex, complete AQP5 plasma membrane insertion occurs at r/a = 0.951 ± 0.005. AQP5-containing cytoplasmic vesicles are spheroidal in morphology with linear extensions, express TOMM20, and contain LC3B and LIMP-2, but not Sec22β, as fiber cells mature. TEM analysis revealed complex vesicular assemblies with congruent subcellular localization to AQP5-containing cytoplasmic vesicles. AQP5-containing cytoplasmic vesicles appear to dock with the plasma membrane. Bafilomycin A1 treatment reduced AQP5 plasma membrane expression by 27%.

Conclusions

AQP5 localizes to spheroidal, linear cytoplasmic vesicles in the differentiating bovine lens fiber cells. During fiber cell differentiation, these vesicles incorporate LC3B and presumably fuse with LIMP-2–positive lysosomes. Our data suggest that AQP5 to the plasma membrane through lysosome-associated unconventional protein secretion, a novel mechanism of AQP5 trafficking.

Lens Aquaporins in Health and Disease: Location is Everything!

Cataract and presbyopia are the leading cause of vision loss and impaired vision, respectively, worldwide. Changes in lens biochemistry and physiology with age are responsible for vision impairment, yet the specific molecular changes that underpin such changes are not entirely understood. In order to preserve transparency over decades of life, the lens establishes and maintains a microcirculation system (MCS) that, through spatially localized ion pumps, induces circulation of water and nutrients into (influx) and metabolites out of (outflow and efflux) the lens. Aquaporins (AQPs) are predicted to play important roles in the establishment and maintenance of local and global water flow throughout the lens. This review discusses the structure and function of lens AQPs and, importantly, their spatial localization that is likely key to proper water flow through the MCS. Moreover, age-related changes are detailed and their predicted effects on the MCS are discussed leading to an updated MCS model. Lastly, the potential therapeutic targeting of AQPs for prevention or treatment of cataract and presbyopia is discussed.

Beyond the Channels: Adhesion Functions of Aquaporin 0 and Connexin 50 in Lens Development

Lens, an avascular tissue involved in light transmission, generates an internal microcirculatory system to promote ion and fluid circulation, thus providing nutrients to internal lens cells and excreting the waste. This unique system makes up for the lack of vasculature and distinctively maintains lens homeostasis and lens fiber cell survival through channels of connexins and other transporters. Aquaporins (AQP) and connexins (Cx) comprise the majority of channels in the lens microcirculation system and are, thus, essential for lens development and transparency. Mutations of AQPs and Cxs result in abnormal channel function and cataract formation. Interestingly, in the last decade or so, increasing evidence has emerged suggesting that in addition to their well-established channel functions, AQP0 and Cx50 play pivotal roles through channel-independent actions in lens development and transparency. Specifically, AQP0 and Cx50 have been shown to have a unique cell adhesion function that mediates lens development and transparency. Precise regulation of cell-matrix and cell-cell adhesion is necessary for cell migration, a critical process during lens development. This review will provide recent advances in basic research of cell adhesion mediated by AQP0 and Cx50.

Physiological Mechanisms Regulating Lens Transport

The transparency and refractive properties of the lens are maintained by the cellular physiology provided by an internal microcirculation system that utilizes spatial differences in ion channels, transporters and gap junctions to establish standing electrochemical and hydrostatic pressure gradients that drive the transport of ions, water and nutrients through this avascular tissue. Aging has negative effects on lens transport, degrading ion and water homeostasis, and producing changes in lens water content. This alters the properties of the lens, causing changes in optical quality and accommodative amplitude that initially result in presbyopia in middle age and ultimately manifest as cataract in the elderly. Recent advances have highlighted that the lens hydrostatic pressure gradient responds to tension transmitted to the lens through the Zonules of Zinn through a mechanism utilizing mechanosensitive channels, multiple sodium transporters respond to changes in hydrostatic pressure to restore equilibrium, and that connexin hemichannels and diverse intracellular signaling cascades play a critical role in these responses. The mechanistic insight gained from these studies has advanced our understanding of lens transport and how it responds and adapts to different inputs both from within the lens, and from surrounding ocular structures.

Eph-ephrin Signaling Affects Eye Lens Fiber Cell Intracellular Voltage and Membrane Conductance

The avascular eye lens generates its own microcirculation that is required for maintaining lifelong lens transparency. The microcirculation relies on sodium ion flux, an extensive network of gap junction (GJ) plaques between lens fiber cells and transmembrane water channels. Disruption of connexin proteins, the building blocks of GJs, or aquaporins, which make up water and adhesion channels, lead to lens opacification or cataracts. Recent studies have revealed that disruption of Eph-ephrin signaling, in particular the receptor EphA2 and the ligand ephrin-A5, in humans and mice lead to congenital and age-related cataracts. We investigated whether changes in lens transparency in EphA2 or ephrin-A5 knockout (^–/–) mice is related to changes in GJ coupling and lens fluid and ion homeostasis. Immunostaining revealed changes in connexin 50 (Cx50) subcellular localization in EphA2^–/– peripheral lens fibers and alteration in aquaporin 0 (Aqp0) staining patterns in ephrin-A5^–/– and EphA2^–/– inner mature fiber cells. Surprisingly, there was no obvious change in GJ coupling in knockout lenses. However, there were changes in fiber cell membrane conductance and intracellular voltage in knockout lenses from 3-month-old mice. These knockout lenses displayed decreased conductance of mature fiber membranes and were hyperpolarized compared to control lenses. This is the first demonstration that the membrane conductance of lens fibers can be regulated. Together these data suggest that EphA2 may be needed for normal Cx50 localization to the cell membrane and that conductance of lens fiber cells requires normal Eph-ephrin signaling and water channel localization.

Aquaporins Have Regional Functions in Development of Refractive Index in the Zebrafish Eye Lens

Purpose

In the eye lens, cytosolic protein concentrations increase progressively from the periphery to the center, contributing to the gradient of refractive index (GRIN). Aquaporins are membrane proteins of lens fiber cells that regulate water transport and adhesion and interact with cytoskeletal proteins. This study investigates how these membrane proteins contribute to proper development of the lens GRIN.

Methods

Loss-of-function deletions of aqp0a and/or aqp0b in zebrafish were generated using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Lenses of single aqp0a^−/− mutants, single aqp0b^−/− mutants, and double aqp0a^−/−/aqp0b^−/− mutants from larval to elderly adult stages were measured using x-ray Talbot interferometry at SPring8 in Japan. The three-dimensional GRIN profiles in two orthogonal cross-sectional planes of each lens were analyzed and compared with in vivo images and previous results obtained from wild-type lenses.

Results

Single aqp0a^−/− mutants tended to show asymmetric GRIN profiles, with the central plateau regions shifted anteriorly. Single aqp0b^−/− mutants had smooth, symmetric GRIN profiles throughout development until spoke opacities appeared in several extremely old samples. Double aqp0a^−/−/aqp0b^−/− mutants showed lower magnitude GRIN profiles, as well as dips in the central plateau region.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that Aqp0a and Aqp0b have region-specific functions in the lens: Aqp0a is active peripherally, regulating centralization of the plateau region, and this function cannot be compensated for by Aqp0b. In the lens center, either Aqp0a or Aqp0b is required for formation of the plateau region, as well as for the GRIN to reach its maximum magnitude in mature lenses.

Effect of Alpha-Glucosyl-Hesperidin Consumption on Lens Sclerosis and Presbyopia

Presbyopia is characterized by a decline in the ability to accommodate the lens. The most commonly accepted theory for the onset of presbyopia is an age-related increase in the stiffness of the lens. However, the cause of lens sclerosis remains unclear. With age, water microcirculation in the lens could change because of an increase in intracellular pressure. In the lens, the intracellular pressure is controlled by the Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid (TRPV) 1 and TRPV4 feedback pathways. In this study, we tried to elucidate that administration of α-glucosyl-hesperidin (G-Hsd), previously reported to prevent nuclear cataract formation, affects lens elasticity and the distribution of TRPV channels and Aquaporin (AQP) channels to meet the requirement of intracellular pressure. As a result, the mouse control lens was significantly toughened compared to both the 1% and 2% G-Hsd mouse lens treatments. The anti-oxidant levels in the lens and plasma decreased with age; however, this decrease could be nullified with either 1% or 2% G-Hsd treatment in a concentration- and exposure time-dependent manner. Moreover, G-Hsd treatment affected the TRPV4 distribution, but not TRPV1, AQP0, and AQP5, in the peripheral area and could maintain intracellular pressure. These findings suggest that G-Hsd has great potential as a compound to prevent presbyopia and/or cataract formation.

Changes to Zonular Tension Alters the Subcellular Distribution of AQP5 in Regions of Influx and Efflux of Water in the Rat Lens

Purpose

The lens uses circulating fluxes of ions and water that enter the lens at both poles and exit at the equator to maintain its optical properties. We have mapped the subcellular distribution of the lens aquaporins (AQP0, AQP1, and AQP5) in these water influx and efflux zones and investigated how their membrane location is affected by changes in tension applied to the lens by the zonules.

Methods

Immunohistochemistry using AQP antibodies was performed on axial sections obtained from rat lenses that had been removed from the eye and then fixed or were fixed in situ to maintain zonular tension. Zonular tension was pharmacologically modulated by applying either tropicamide (increased) or pilocarpine (decreased). AQP labeling was visualized using confocal microscopy.

Results

Modulation of zonular tension had no effect on AQP1 or AQP0 labeling in either the water efflux or influx zones. In contrast, AQP5 labeling changed from membranous to cytoplasmic in response to both mechanical and pharmacologically induced reductions in zonular tension in both the efflux zone and anterior (but not posterior) influx zone associated with the lens sutures.

Conclusions

Altering zonular tension dynamically regulates the membrane trafficking of AQP5 in the efflux and anterior influx zones to potentially change the magnitude of circulating water fluxes in the lens.

Connexin 50 and AQP0 are Essential in Maintaining Organization and Integrity of Lens Fibers

Purpose

Connexins and aquaporins play essential roles in maintaining lens homeostasis and transparency and there is a close physical and functional relationship between these two proteins. Aquaporin 0 (AQP0), in addition to its role in water transport in the lens, acts as a cell-cell adhesion molecule. Recently, we showed a new role of connexin (Cx) 50 in mediating cell-cell adhesion. However, the cooperative roles of these two proteins in the lens in vivo have not been reported.

Methods

We generated an AQP0/Cx50 double knockout (dKO) mouse model. Light, fluorescence, transmission thin section, and freeze-fracture electron microscopy, as well as wheat germ agglutinin and phalloidin labeling were used to evaluate lens structure. Mechanical properties of lenses were determined by mechanical compression testing.

Results

DKO mice exhibited small eyes and lenses with severe cataracts, along with lens posterior defects, including posterior capsule rupture. The dKO mouse lenses had severe structural disruption associated with increased spaces between lens fiber cells when compared with wild-type lenses or lenses deficient in either Cx50 or AQP0. DKO mice also exhibited greater reduction in lens size compared with Cx50 KO mice. Gap-junction plaque size was greatly decreased in cortical fiber cells in dKO mice. Moreover, lens stiffness and elasticity were completely diminished, exhibiting a gelatinous texture in adult dKO mice.

Conclusions

This novel mouse model reveals that Cx50 and AQP0 play an important role in mediating cell-cell adhesion function in the lens fiber cells and their deficiency impairs lens fiber organization, integrity, mechanical properties, and lens development.

Proteomic Analysis of S-Palmitoylated Proteins in Ocular Lens Reveals Palmitoylation of AQP5 and MP20

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to characterize the palmitoyl-proteome in lens fiber cells. S-palmitoylation is the most common form of protein S-acylation and the reversible nature of this modification functions as a molecular switch to regulate many biological processes. This modification could play important roles in regulating protein functions and protein–protein interactions in the lens.

Methods

The palmitoyl-proteome of bovine lens fiber cells was investigated by combining acyl-biotin exchange (ABE) chemistry and mass-spectrometry analysis. Due to the possibility of false-positive results from ABE experiment, a method was also developed for direct detection of palmitoylated peptides by mass spectrometry for validating palmitoylation of lens proteins MP20 and AQP5. Palmitoylation levels on AQP5 in different regions of the lens were quantified after iodoacetamide (IAA)-palmitate exchange.

Results

The ABE experiment identified 174 potential palmitoylated proteins. These proteins include 39 well-characterized palmitoylated proteins, 92 previously reported palmitoylated proteins in other tissues, and 43 newly identified potential palmitoylated proteins including two important transmembrane proteins in the lens, AQP5 and MP20. Further analysis by direct detection of palmitoylated peptides confirmed palmitoylation of AQP5 on C6 and palmitoylation of MP20 on C159. Palmitoylation of AQP5 was found to only occur in a narrow region of the inner lens cortex and does not occur in the lens epithelium, in the lens outer cortex, or in the lens nucleus.

Conclusions

AQP5 and MP20 are among 174 palmitoylated proteins found in bovine lens fiber cells. This modification to AQP5 and MP20 may play a role in their translocation from the cytoplasm to cell membranes during fiber cell differentiation.

Aqp0a Regulates Suture Stability in the Zebrafish Lens

Purpose

To investigate the roles of Aquaporin 0a (Aqp0a) and Aqp0b in zebrafish lens development and transparency.

Methods

CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing was used to generate loss-of-function deletions in zebrafish aqp0a and/or aqp0b. Wild type (WT), single mutant, and double mutant lenses were analyzed from embryonic to adult stages. Lens transparency, morphology, and growth were assessed. Immunohistochemistry was used to map protein localization as well as to assess tissue organization and distribution of cell nuclei.

Results

aqp0a^−/− and/or aqp0b^−/− cause embryonic cataracts with variable penetrance. While lenses of single mutants of either gene recover transparency in juveniles, double mutants consistently form dense cataracts that persist in adults, indicating partially redundant functions. Double mutants also reveal redundant Aqp0 functions in lens growth. The nucleus of WT lenses moves from the anterior pole to the lens center with age. In aqp0a^−/− mutants, the nucleus fails to centralize as it does in WT or aqp0b^−/− lenses, and in double mutant lenses there is no consistent lens nuclear position. In addition, the anterior sutures of aqp0a^−/−, but not aqp0b^−/− mutants, are unstable resulting in failure of suture maintenance at older stages and anterior polar opacity.

Conclusions. Zebrafish Aqp0s have partially redundant functions, but only Aqp0a promotes suture stability, which directs the lens nucleus to centralize, failure of which results in anterior polar opacity. These studies support the hypothesis that the two Aqp0s subfunctionalized during fish evolution and that Aqp0-dependent maintenance of the anterior suture is essential for lens transparency.

Proteome-transcriptome analysis and proteome remodeling in mouse lens epithelium and fibers

Epithelial cells and differentiated fiber cells represent distinct compartments in the ocular lens. While previous studies have revealed proteins that are preferentially expressed in epithelial vs. fiber cells, a comprehensive proteomics library comparing the molecular compositions of epithelial vs. fiber cells is essential for understanding lens formation, function, disease and regenerative potential, and for efficient differentiation of pluripotent stem cells for modeling of lens development and pathology in vitro. To compare protein compositions between the lens epithelium and fibers, we employed tandem mass spectrometry (2D-LC/MS) analysis of microdissected mouse P0.5 lenses. Functional classifications of the top 525 identified proteins into gene ontology categories by molecular processes and subcellular localizations, were adapted for the lens. Expression levels of both epithelial and fiber proteomes were compared with whole lens proteome and mRNA levels using E14.5, E16.5, E18.5, and P0.5 RNA-Seq data sets. During this developmental time window, multiple complex biosynthetic and catabolic processes generate the molecular and structural foundation for lens transparency. As expected, crystallins showed a high correlation between their mRNA and protein levels. Comprehensive data analysis confirmed and/or predicted roles for transcription factors (TFs), RNA-binding proteins (e.g. Carhsp1), translational apparatus including ribosomal heterogeneity and initiation factors, microtubules, cytoskeletal [e.g. non-muscle myosin IIA heavy chain (Myh9) and βB2-spectrin (Sptbn2)] and membrane proteins in lens formation and maturation. Our data highlighted many proteins with unknown functions in the lens that were preferentially enriched in epithelium or fibers, setting the stage for future studies to further dissect the roles of these proteins in fiber cell differentiation vs. epithelial cell maintenance. In conclusion, the present proteomic datasets represent the first mouse lens epithelium and fiber cell proteomes, establish comparative analyses of protein and RNA-Seq data, and characterize the major proteome remodeling required to form the mature lens fiber cells.

The Role of Aquaporins in Ocular Lens Homeostasis

Abstract: Aquaporins (AQPs), by playing essential roles in the maintenance of ocular lens homeostasis, contribute to the establishment and maintenance of the overall optical properties of the lens over many decades of life. Three aquaporins, AQP0, AQP1 and AQP5, each with distinctly different functional properties, are abundantly and differentially expressed in the different regions of the ocular lens. Furthermore, the diversity of AQP functionality is increased in the absence of protein turnover by age-related modifications to lens AQPs that are proposed to alter AQP function in the different regions of the lens. These regional differences in AQP functionality are proposed to contribute to the generation and directionality of the lens internal microcirculation; a system of circulating ionic and fluid fluxes that delivers nutrients to and removes wastes from the lens faster than could be achieved by passive diffusion alone. In this review, we present how regional differences in lens AQP isoforms potentially contribute to this microcirculation system by highlighting current areas of investigation and emphasizing areas where future work is required.

Expression of potassium-dependent sodium-calcium exchanger in the murine lens

Loss of intracellular calcium homeostasis may contribute to the opacification of lens tissue during cortical cataract formation. In healthy lenses, the concentration of intracellular calcium is maintained at levels far below electrochemical equilibrium but the identity of the calcium extrusion mechanism in lens fiber cells has remained elusive. Previous studies focused on the role of plasma membrane calcium ATPases and sodium-calcium exchangers. Here, we examined the expression of mRNA transcripts encoding potassium-dependent sodium-calcium exchangers (Nckx's, encoded by the Slc24 gene family) in the mouse lens. The most abundant of the five Slc24 family members was Slc24a4 (Nckx4). Notably, Slc24a4 was the only family member with increased expression in fiber cells. Using an antibody raised against recombinant mouse Nckx4, we showed that the protein is expressed strongly in the outer cortical fibers, consistent with results of in situ hybridization experiments and earlier mass spectrometry analysis. To test the role of Nckx4 directly, we generated mice in which Slc24a4 was deleted conditionally in lens tissue. In conditional knockout animals, the level of Nckx4 protein was reduced to background levels without a discernible effect on lens growth or transparency. Thus, despite its relative abundance in the lens, Nckx4 does not appear to have an indispensable role in the maintenance of lens clarity.

Dynamic functional contribution of the water channel AQP5 to the water permeability of peripheral lens fiber cells

Although the functionality of the lens water channels aquaporin 1 (AQP1; epithelium) and AQP0 (fiber cells) is well established, less is known about the role of AQP5 in the lens. Since in other tissues AQP5 functions as a regulated water channel with a water permeability (P_H2O) some 20 times higher than AQP0, AQP5 could function to modulate P_H2O in lens fiber cells. To test this possibility, a fluorescence dye dilution assay was used to calculate the relative P_H2O of epithelial cells and fiber membrane vesicles isolated from either the mouse or rat lens, in the absence and presence of HgCl₂, an inhibitor of AQP1 and AQP5. Immunolabeling of lens sections and fiber membrane vesicles from mouse and rat lenses revealed differences in the subcellular distributions of AQP5 in the outer cortex between species, with AQP5 being predominantly membranous in the mouse but predominantly cytoplasmic in the rat. In contrast, AQP0 labeling was always membranous in both species. This species-specific heterogeneity in AQP5 membrane localization was mirrored in measurements of P_H2O, with only fiber membrane vesicles isolated from the mouse lens, exhibiting a significant Hg²⁺-sensitive contribution to P_H2O. When rat lenses were first organ cultured, immunolabeling revealed an insertion of AQP5 into cortical fiber cells, and a significant increase in Hg²⁺-sensitive P_H2O was detected in membrane vesicles. Our results show that AQP5 forms functional water channels in the rodent lens, and they suggest that dynamic membrane insertion of AQP5 may regulate water fluxes in the lens by modulating P_H2O in the outer cortex.

Auto-Adhesion Potential of Extraocular Aqp0 during Teleost Development

AQP0 water channels are the most abundant proteins expressed in the mammalian lens fiber membranes where they are essential for lens development and transparency. Unlike other aquaporin paralogs, mammalian AQP0 has a low intrinsic water permeability, but can form cell-to-cell junctions between the lens fibers. It is not known whether the adhesive properties of AQP0 is a derived feature found only in mammals, or exists as a conserved ancestral trait in non-mammalian vertebrates. Here we show that a tetraploid teleost, the Atlantic salmon, expresses four Aqp0 paralogs in the developing lens, but also expresses significant levels of aqp0 mRNAs and proteins in the epithelia of the pronephros, presumptive enterocytes, gill filament and epidermis. Quantitative PCR reveals that aqp0 mRNA titres increase by three orders of magnitude between the onset of somitogenesis and pigmentation of the eye. Using in situ hybridization and specific antisera, we show that at least two of the channels (Aqp0a1, -0b1 and/or -0b2) are localized in the extraocular basolateral and apical membranes, while Aqp0a2 is lens-specific. Heterologous expression of the Aqp0 paralogs in adhesion-deficient mouse fibolast L-cells reveals that, as for human AQP0, each intact salmon channel retains cell-to-cell adhesive properties. The strongest Aqp0 interactions are auto-adhesion, suggesting that homo-octamers likely form the intercellular junctions of the developing lens and epithelial tissues. The present data are thus the first to show the adhesion potential of Aqp0 channels in a non-mammalian vertebrate, and further uncover a novel extraocular role of the channels during vertebrate development.