Surgical repair in humans after traumatic nerve injury provides limited functional neural regeneration in adults

Digirseophene A promotes recovery in injured developing cerebellum via AMPK/AKT/GSK3β pathway-mediated neural stem cell proliferation

Neural stem cells (NSCs) exhibit a remarkable capacity for self-renewal and have the potential to differentiate into various neural lineage cells, which makes them pivotal in the management of neurological disorders. Harnessing the inherent potential of endogenous NSCs for enhancing nerve repair and regeneration represents an optimal approach to addressing diseases of the nervous system. In this study, we explored the potential of a novel benzophenone derivative named Digirseophene A (DGA), which was isolated from the endophytic fungus Corydalis tomentella. Previous experiments have extensively identified and characterized DGA, revealing its unique properties. Our findings demonstrate the remarkable capability of DGA to stimulate neural stem cell proliferation, both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we established a model of radiation-induced cerebellar injury to assess the effects of DGA on the distribution of different cell subpopulations within the damaged cerebellum, thereby suggesting its beneficial role in cerebellar repair. In addition, our observations on a primary NSCs model revealed that DGA significantly increased cellular oxygen consumption, indicating increased energy and metabolic demands. By utilizing various pathway inhibitors in combination with DGA, we successfully demonstrated its ability to counteract the suppressive impacts of AMPK and GSK3β inhibitors on NSC proliferation. Collectively, our research results strongly suggest that DGA, as an innovative compound, exerts its role in activating NSCs and promoting injury repair through the regulation of the AMPK/AKT/GSK3β pathway.

Schwann Cells as Orchestrators of Nerve Repair: Implications for Tissue Regeneration and Pathologies

Peripheral nerves exist in a stable state in adulthood providing a rapid bidirectional signaling system to control tissue structure and function. However, following injury, peripheral nerves can regenerate much more effectively than those of the central nervous system (CNS). This multicellular process is coordinated by peripheral glia, in particular Schwann cells, which have multiple roles in stimulating and nurturing the regrowth of damaged axons back to their targets. Aside from the repair of damaged nerves themselves, nerve regenerative processes have been linked to the repair of other tissues and de novo innervation appears important in establishing an environment conducive for the development and spread of tumors. In contrast, defects in these processes are linked to neuropathies, aging, and pain. In this review, we focus on the role of peripheral glia, especially Schwann cells, in multiple aspects of nerve regeneration and discuss how these findings may be relevant for pathologies associated with these processes.

Comparative Analysis of Various Spider Silks in Regard to Nerve Regeneration: Material Properties and Schwann Cell Response

Peripheral nerve reconstruction through the employment of nerve guidance conduits with Trichonephila dragline silk as a luminal filling has emerged as an outstanding preclinical alternative to avoid nerve autografts. Yet, it remains unknown whether the outcome is similar for silk fibers harvested from other spider species. This study compares the regenerative potential of dragline silk from two orb-weaving spiders, Trichonephila inaurata and Nuctenea umbratica, as well as the silk of the jumping spider Phidippus regius. Proliferation, migration, and transcriptomic state of Schwann cells seeded on these silks are investigated. In addition, fiber morphology, primary protein structure, and mechanical properties are studied. The results demonstrate that the increased velocity of Schwann cells on Phidippus regius fibers can be primarily attributed to the interplay between the silk's primary protein structure and its mechanical properties. Furthermore, the capacity of silk fibers to trigger cells toward a gene expression profile of a myelinating Schwann cell phenotype is shown. The findings for the first time allow an in-depth comparison of the specific cellular response to various native spider silks and a correlation with the fibers' material properties. This knowledge is essential to open up possibilities for targeted manufacturing of synthetic nervous tissue replacement.

Anisotropic microtopography surface of chitosan scaffold regulating skin precursor-derived Schwann cells towards repair phenotype promotes neural regeneration

For repairing peripheral nerve and spinal cord defects, biomaterial scaffold-based cell-therapy was emerged as an effective strategy, requiring the positive response of seed cells to biomaterial substrate and environment signals. Previous work highlighted that the imposed surface properties of scaffold could provide important guidance cues to adhered cells for polarization. However, the insufficiency of native Schwann cells and unclear cellular response mechanisms remained to be addressed. Given that, this study aimed to illuminate the micropatterned chitosan-film action on the rat skin precursor-derived Schwann cells (SKP-SCs). Chitosan-film with different ridge/groove size was fabricated and applied for the SKP-SCs induction. Results indicated that SKP-SCs cultured on 30 μm size microgroove surface showed better oriented alignment phenotype. Induced SKP-SCs presented similar genic phenotype as repair Schwann cells, increasing expression of c-Jun, neural cell adhesion molecule, and neurotrophic receptor p75. Moreover, SKP-SC-secretome was subjected to cytokine array GS67 assay, data indicated the regulation of paracrine phenotype, a panel of cytokines was verified up-regulated at secreted level and gene expression level in induced SKP-SCs. These up-regulated cytokines exhibit a series of promotive neural regeneration functions, including cell survival, cell migration, cell proliferation, angiogenesis, axon growth, and cellular organization etc. through bioinformatics analysis. Furthermore, the effectively polarized SKP-SCs-sourced secretome, promoted the proliferation and migration capacity of the primarily cultured native rat Schwann cells, and augmented neurites growth of the cultured motoneurons, as well as boosted axonal regrowth of the axotomy-injured motoneurons. Taken together, SKP-SCs obtained pro-neuroregeneration phenotype in adaptive response to the anisotropic topography surface of chitosan-film, displayed the oriented parallel growth, the transition towards repair Schwann cell genic phenotype, and the enhanced paracrine effect on neural regeneration. This study provided novel insights into the potency of anisotropic microtopography surface to Schwann-like cells phenotype regulation, that facilitating to provide promising engineered cell-scaffold in neural injury therapies.

Next-generation RNA sequencing elucidates transcriptomic signatures of pathophysiologic nerve regeneration

The cellular and molecular underpinnings of Wallerian degeneration have been robustly explored in laboratory models of successful nerve regeneration. In contrast, there is limited interrogation of failed regeneration, which is the challenge facing clinical practice. Specifically, we lack insight on the pathophysiologic mechanisms that lead to the formation of neuromas-in-continuity (NIC). To address this knowledge gap, we have developed and validated a novel basic science model of rapid-stretch nerve injury, which provides a biofidelic injury with NIC development and incomplete neurologic recovery. In this study, we applied next-generation RNA sequencing to elucidate the temporal transcriptional landscape of pathophysiologic nerve regeneration. To corroborate genetic analysis, nerves were subject to immunofluorescent staining for transcripts representative of the prominent biological pathways identified. Pathophysiologic nerve regeneration produces substantially altered genetic profiles both temporally and in the mature neuroma microenvironment, in contrast to the coordinated genetic signatures of Wallerian degeneration and successful regeneration. To our knowledge, this study presents as the first transcriptional study of NIC pathophysiology and has identified cellular death, fibrosis, neurodegeneration, metabolism, and unresolved inflammatory signatures that diverge from pathways elaborated by traditional models of successful nerve regeneration.

The role of Gel-Ppy-modified nerve conduit on the repair of sciatic nerve defect in rat model

The serious clinical challenge of peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is nerve regeneration. Nerve conduit represents a promising strategy to contribute to nerve regeneration by bridging injured nerve gaps. However, due to a unique microenvironment of nerve tissue, autologous nerves have not been substituted by nerve conduit. Nerve regeneration after nerve conduit implantation depends on many factors, such as conductivity and biocompatibility. Therefore, Gelatin (Gel) with biocompatibility and polypyrrole (Ppy) with conductivity is highly concerned. In this paper, Gel-Ppy modified nerve conduit was fabricated with great biocompatibility and conductivity to evaluate its properties of enhancing nerve regeneration in vivo and in vitro. The proliferation of Schwann cells on Gel-Ppy modified nerve conduit was remarkably increased. Consistent with in vitro results, the Gel-Ppy nerve conduit could contribute to the regeneration of Schwann cell in vivo. The axon diameters and myelin sheath thickness were also enhanced, resulting in the amelioration of muscle atrophy, nerve conduction, and motor function recovery. To explain this interesting phenomenon, western blot results indicated that the Gel-Ppy conduit facilitated nerve regeneration via upregulating the Rap1 pathway to induce neurite outgrowth. Therefore, the above results demonstrated that Gel-Ppy modified nerve conduit could provide an acceptable microenvironment for nerve regeneration and be popularized as a novel therapeutic strategy of PNI.

Nanofibers in Ocular Drug Targeting and Tissue Engineering: Their Importance, Advantages, Advances, and Future Perspectives

Nanofibers are frequently encountered in daily life as a modern material with a wide range of applications. The important advantages of production techniques, such as being easy, cost effective, and industrially applicable are important factors in the preference for nanofibers. Nanofibers, which have a broad scope of use in the field of health, are preferred both in drug delivery systems and tissue engineering. Due to the biocompatible materials used in their construction, they are also frequently preferred in ocular applications. The fact that they have a long drug release time as a drug delivery system and have been used in corneal tissue studies, which have been successfully developed in tissue engineering, stand out as important advantages of nanofibers. This review examines nanofibers, their production techniques and general information, nanofiber-based ocular drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering concepts in detail.

Bioprinted Schwann and Mesenchymal Stem Cell Co-Cultures for Enhanced Spatial Control of Neurite Outgrowth

Bioprinting nerve conduits supplemented with glial or stem cells is a promising approach to promote axonal regeneration in the injured nervous system. In this study, we examined the effects of different compositions of bioprinted fibrin hydrogels supplemented with Schwann cells and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) on cell viability, production of neurotrophic factors, and neurite outgrowth from adult sensory neurons. To reduce cell damage during bioprinting, we analyzed and optimized the shear stress magnitude and exposure time. The results demonstrated that fibrin hydrogel made from 9 mg/mL of fibrinogen and 50IE/mL of thrombin maintained the gel’s highest stability and cell viability. Gene transcription levels for neurotrophic factors were significantly higher in cultures containing Schwann cells. However, the amount of the secreted neurotrophic factors was similar in all co-cultures with the different ratios of Schwann cells and MSCs. By testing various co-culture combinations, we found that the number of Schwann cells can feasibly be reduced by half and still stimulate guided neurite outgrowth in a 3D-printed fibrin matrix. This study demonstrates that bioprinting can be used to develop nerve conduits with optimized cell compositions to guide axonal regeneration.

Effect of necrostatin-1 on sciatic nerve crush injury in rat models

BACKGROUND

Necrostatin-1 (Nec-1) is an inhibitor of the receptor interacting protein (RIP)1 kinase, which acts as an inhibitor of necroptosis, a special form of necrosis. In the present study, the effect of Nec-1 on peripheral nerve injury (PNI) was investigated.

METHODS

The PNI model was established by inducing sciatic nerve injury. Hematoxylin-eosin and immunofluorescence staining techniques were used to assess the extent of injury to nerve fibers and necrosis of Schwann cells (SCs). Western blotting was performed to detect the expression of necroptosis-related factors (RIP1 and RIP3). The concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and the oxidative stress-related enzyme malondialdehyde (MDA) were determined to indicate the degree of inflammation and oxidative stress.

RESULTS

Nec-1 could decrease the degree of peripheral nerve lesions after PNI and protect SCs and axons by inhibiting necroptosis. Furthermore, Nec-1 could reduce necroptosis by inhibiting RIP1 and effectively reduce inflammation and reactive oxygen species production at the early stage of PNI.

CONCLUSIONS

Alleviation of necroptosis by Nec-1 may provide new insights into therapies for the early stages of peripheral nerve repair after PNI.

PCL NGCs integrated with urolithin-A-loaded hydrogels for nerve regeneration

Inflammation and oxidative stress are among the leading causes of poor prognosis after peripheral nerve injury (PNI). Urolithin-A (UA), an intermediate product produced by the catabolism of ellagitannins in the gastrointestinal tract, has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties for inflammation, oxidative damage, and aging-related diseases. Hence, we prepared UA-loaded hydrogels and embedded them in the lumen of PCL nerve guide conduits (NGCs). The hydrogels continuously released appropriate doses of UA into the microenvironment. Based on in vitro studies, UA facilitates cell proliferation and reduces oxidative damage. Besides, the experimental evaluation revealed good biocompatibility of the materials involved. We implanted NGCs into rat models to bridge the sciatic nerve defects in an in vivo study. The sciatic functional index of the PCL/collagen/UA group was comparable to that of the autograft group. Additionally, the consequences of electrophysiological, gastrocnemius muscle and nerve histology assessment of the PCL/collagen/UA group were better than those in the PCL and PCL/collagen groups and close to those in the autograft group. In this study, UA sustained release via the PCL/collagen/UA NGC was found to be an effective alternative treatment for PNI, validating our hypothesis that UA could promote regeneration of nerve tissue.

Efficacy of Nerve-Derived Hydrogels to Promote Axon Regeneration Is Influenced by the Method of Tissue Decellularization

Injuries to large peripheral nerves are often associated with tissue defects and require reconstruction using autologous nerve grafts, which have limited availability and result in donor site morbidity. Peripheral nerve-derived hydrogels could potentially supplement or even replace these grafts. In this study, three decellularization protocols based on the ionic detergents sodium dodecyl sulfate (P1) and sodium deoxycholate (P2), or the organic solvent tri-n-butyl phosphate (P3), were used to prepare hydrogels. All protocols resulted in significantly decreased amounts of genomic DNA, but the P2 hydrogel showed the best preservation of extracellular matrix proteins, cytokines, and chemokines, and reduced levels of sulfated glycosaminoglycans. In vitro P1 and P2 hydrogels supported Schwann cell viability, secretion of VEGF, and neurite outgrowth. Surgical repair of a 10 mm-long rat sciatic nerve gap was performed by implantation of tubular polycaprolactone conduits filled with hydrogels followed by analyses using diffusion tensor imaging and immunostaining for neuronal and glial markers. The results demonstrated that the P2 hydrogel considerably increased the number of axons and the distance of regeneration into the distal nerve stump. In summary, the method used to decellularize nerve tissue affects the efficacy of the resulting hydrogels to support regeneration after nerve injury.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines and leukocyte integrins associated with chronic neuropathic pain in traumatic and inflammatory neuropathies: Initial observations and hypotheses

Leukocyte infiltration and persistence within peripheral nerves have been implicated in chronic nociception pathogenesis in murine peripheral neuropathy models. Endoneurial cytokine and chemokine expression contribute to leukocyte infiltration and maintenance of a pro-inflammatory state that delays peripheral nerve recovery and promotes chronic pain behaviors in these mice. However, there has been a failure to translate murine model data into safe and effective treatments for chronic neuropathic pain in peripheral neuropathy patients, or develop reliable biomarkers that may help diagnose or determine treatment responses in affected patients. Initial work showed that persistent sciatic nerve CD11b+ CD45+ leukocyte infiltration was associated with disease severity in three mouse models of inflammatory and traumatic peripheral neuropathies, implying a direct contributing role in disease pathogenesis. In support of this, CD11b+ leukocytes were also seen in the sural nerve biopsies of chronic neuropathic pain patients with three different peripheral neuropathies. Systemic CD11b antagonism using a validated function-neutralizing monoclonal antibody effectively treated chronic nociception following unilateral sciatic nerve crush injury (a representative traumatic neuropathy model associated with axonal degeneration and increased blood-nerve barrier permeability) and does not cause drug addiction behaviors in adult mice. These data suggest that CD11b could be an effective molecular target for chronic neuropathic pain treatment in inflammatory and traumatic peripheral neuropathies. Despite known murine peripheral neuropathy model limitations, our initial work suggests that early expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 may predict subsequent chronic nociception development following unilateral sciatic nerve crush injury. Studies aligning animal model investigation with observational data from well-characterized human peripheral neuropathies, including transcriptomics and proteomics, as well as animal model studies using a human clinical trial design should foster the identification of clinically relevant biomarkers and effective targeted treatments with limited addiction potential for chronic neuropathic pain in peripheral neuropathy patients.

Role of Transforming Growth Factor Beta in Peripheral Nerve Regeneration: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms

Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is one of the most common concerns in trauma patients. Despite significant advances in repair surgeries, the outcome can still be unsatisfactory, resulting in morbidities such as loss of sensory or motor function and reduced quality of life. This highlights the need for more supportive strategies for nerve regrowth and adequate recovery. Multifunctional cytokine transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is essential for the development of the nervous system and is known for its neuroprotective functions. Accumulating evidence indicates its involvement in multiple cellular and molecular responses that are critical to peripheral nerve repair. Following PNI, TGF-β is released at the site of injury where it can initiate a series of phenotypic changes in Schwann cells (SCs), modulate immune cells, activate neuronal intrinsic growth capacity, and regulate blood nerve barrier (BNB) permeability, thus enhancing the regeneration of the nerves. Notably, TGF-β has already been applied experimentally in the treatment of PNI. These treatments with encouraging outcomes further demonstrate its regeneration-promoting capacity. Herein, we review the possible roles of TGF-β in peripheral nerve regeneration and discuss the underlying mechanisms, thus providing new cues for better treatment of PNI.

Melatonin promotes peripheral nerve repair through Parkin-mediated mitophagy

Schwann cells (SCs) are the major glial cells in peripheral nervous system. They unsheathe and myelinate axons and play an essential role in peripheral nerve regeneration. Several studies report that Parkin-mediated mitophagy is associated with various diseases. Melatonin promotes proliferation of central glial cells. Little is known about the effect of melatonin and Parkin-mediated mitophagy on peripheral nerve repair. In this study, using a rat model of a peripheral nerve injury (PNI) and in vitro model established by RSC96 cells treated with tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP), we found that Parkin-mediated mitophagy can effectively reduce the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), maintain the balance of mitochondrial membrane potential, maintain autophagic flux, and inhibit mitochondrial apoptosis. At the same time, we found that the increase of Parkin under stress is a manifestation of the RSC96 cells' resistance to oxidative stress to maintain RSC96 cells' balance. In our experiment, melatonin is similar to a Parkin agonist, up-regulating the expression of Parkin, enhancing all the positive results of Parkin in a stress state, such as inhibiting active oxygen production, maintaining autophagic flux, and inhibiting mitochondrial apoptosis. In addition, we design in vivo experiments to verify in In vitro experiments. In in vivo, melatonin promotes the expression of Parkin, maintains autophagic flux, inhibits apoptosis, promotes myelin regeneration, reduces the regeneration of collagen fibers around damaged tissues, and promotes peripheral nerve repair. When adenovirus was used to down-regulate the expression of Parkin, we found that all the positive effects of melatonin were attenuated. Collectively, these findings indicate that melatonin upregulates Parkin-mediated mitophagy and promotes peripheral nerve repair. The results provide a basis for development of effective drugs for PNI treatment.

Investigating the Optimal Initiation Time of Ultrasound Therapy for Peripheral Nerve Regeneration after Axonotmesis in Rats

This study was aimed at identifying the optimal initiation time of ultrasound (US) therapy for peripheral nerve regeneration after axonotmesis. Thirty-six rats with sciatic nerve crush injury were divided into four groups that received US irradiation initiated 1, 7 or 14 d after injury, or sham stimulation for 4 wk. Motor function analysis was conducted weekly; however, there was no significant improvement attributed to US treatment. Four weeks after injury, compound muscle action potential amplitude values of the group in which US irradiation was initiated 1 d after the injury exhibited significant improvement compared with the sham stimulation group. In addition, myelin sheath thickness was significantly greater in the 1-d group than in other groups. These results indicate that US treatment initiated 1 d after peripheral nerve injury promotes maximum regeneration.

Ultrasound Stimulation Inhibits Morphological Degeneration of Motor Endplates in the Denervated Skeletal Muscle of Rats

Recovery of motor function after peripheral nerve injury requires treatment of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), as well as the injured nerve and skeletal muscle. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of ultrasound (US) stimulation on NMJ degeneration after denervation using a rat model of peroneal nerve transection. Twelve-week-old male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to 3 groups: US stimulation, sham stimulation, and intact. US or sham stimulation was performed on the left tibialis anterior (TA) muscle starting the day after peroneal nerve transection for 5 minutes daily under anesthesia. Four weeks later, the number and morphology of the motor endplates were analyzed to assess NMJ in the TA muscle. The endplates were classified as normal, partially fragmented, or fully fragmented for morphometric analysis. In addition, the number of terminal Schwann cells (tSCs) per endplate and percentage of endplates with tSCs (tSC retention percentage) were calculated to evaluate the effect of tSCs on NMJs. Our results showed that endplates degenerated 4 weeks after transection, with a decrease in the normal type and an increase in the fully fragmented type in both the US and sham groups compared to the intact group. Furthermore, the US group showed significant suppression of the normal type decrease and a fully fragmented type increase compared to the sham group. These results suggest that US stimulation inhibits endplate degeneration in denervated TA muscles. In contrast, the number of endplates and tSC and tSC retention percentages were not significantly different between the US and sham groups. Further investigations are required to determine the molecular mechanisms by which US stimulation suppresses degeneration.

Electrospun Nanofibers for Manipulating the Soft Tissue Regeneration

Soft tissue damage is a common clinical problem that affects the lives of a large number of patients all over the world. It is of great importance to develop functional...

A case of ulnar nerve section at the elbow alleviated by Martin-Gruber communicating branch. Diagnostic characterization

Martin-Gruber communicating branch may be a confounding factor in the diagnosis of ulnar neuropathy at the elbow. It may also lead to a surprising level of motor function conservation despite evident neuropathy. We present a patient with ulnar nerve section at the elbow who underwent early treatment by nerve suture. At 7 months, function was good, despite sonographic findings of neurotmesis at the elbow. Electroneurography revealed Martin-Gruber communicating branch. This type of communicating branch can be associated with functional conservation despite ulnar nerve section. Electrophysiological and ultrasound findings can be highly contributive in defining these conditions.

Engineered neural tissue made using clinical-grade human neural stem cells supports regeneration in a long gap peripheral nerve injury model

A surgical autograft remains the clinical gold-standard therapy for gap repair following peripheral nerve injury, however, challenges remain with achieving full recovery and reducing donor-site morbidity. Engineered Neural Tissue (EngNT) manufactured using differentiated CTX0E03 human stem cells (EngNT-CTX) has been developed as a potential 'off the shelf' allogeneic autograft replacement. Ensheathed within a collagen membrane developed to facilitate biomechanical integration, EngNT-CTX was used to bridge a critical-length (15 mm) sciatic nerve gap injury in athymic nude rats. The effectiveness of EngNT-CTX was compared to an autograft using outcome measures that assessed neuronal regeneration and functional recovery at 8 and 16 weeks. At both time points EngNT-CTX restored electrophysiological nerve conduction and functional reinnervation of downstream muscles to the same extent as the autograft. Histological analysis confirmed that more motor neurons had successfully regenerated through the repair in EngNT-CTX in comparison to the autograft at 8 weeks, which was consistent with the electrophysiology, with the number of motor neurons similar in both groups by 16 weeks. The total number of neurons (motor + sensory) was greater in autografts than EngNT-CTX at 8 weeks, indicating that more sensory fibres may have sprouted in those animals at this time point. In conclusion, this study provides evidence to support the effectiveness of EngNT-CTX as a replacement for the nerve autograft, as the functional regeneration assessed through histological and electrophysiological outcome measures demonstrated equivalent performance. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Following injury a peripheral nerve has the capacity to regenerate naturally, however, in the case of severe damage where there is a gap the current gold-standard microsurgical intervention is an autograft. This is associated with serious limitations including tissue availability and donor-site morbidity. Tissue engineering aims to overcome these limitations by building a construct from therapeutic cells and biomaterials as a means to mimic and replace the autograft. In this study engineered neural tissue (EngNT) was manufactured using human stem cells (CTX) to bridge a critical-length gap injury. When compared to the autograft in an animal model the EngNT-CTX construct restored function to an equivalent or greater extent.

Calotropis procera (leaves) supplementation exerts curative effects on promoting functional recovery in a mouse model of peripheral nerve injury

Peripheral nerve injuries are among those complicated medical conditions, which are still waiting for their highly effective first-line therapies. In this study, the role of Calotropis procera crude leaves was evaluated at different doses for their effectiveness in improving functional recovery following sciatic nerve injury-induced in the mouse model. Thirty-two healthy albino mice were divided into four groups as Normal chow group (control, n = 8) and C. procera chow groups (50 mg/kg (n = 8), 100 mg/kg (n = 8) and 200 mg/kg (n = 8)). Behavioral analyses were performed to assess and compare improved functional recovery along with skeletal muscle mass measurement in all groups. Serum samples were analyzed for oxidative stress markers. Results showed that C. procera leaves at dose-dependent manner showed statistically prominent (p < .05) increase in sensorimotor functions reclamation as confirmed by behavioral analyses along with muscle mass restoration and prominent decline in TOS and momentous increase in TAC along with the augmented activity of antioxidative enzymes.

Evidence-Based Approach to Timing of Nerve Surgery: A Review

ABSTRACT

Events causing acute stress to the health care system, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, place clinical decisions under increased scrutiny. The priority and timing of surgical procedures are critically evaluated under these conditions, yet the optimal timing of procedures is a key consideration in any clinical setting. There is currently no single article consolidating a large body of current evidence on timing of nerve surgery. MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were systematically reviewed for clinical data on nerve repair and reconstruction to define the current understanding of timing and other factors affecting outcomes. Special attention was given to sensory, mixed/motor, nerve compression syndromes, and nerve pain. The data presented in this review may assist surgeons in making sound, evidence-based clinical decisions regarding timing of nerve surgery.

Evaluation of postoperative outcomes in patients following multi-level surgical reconstructions with the use Avive™ soft tissue membrane on nerve after traumatic injury of the upper extremity and lower extremity

Background

Treatment of patients with traumatic axonotmesis presents challenges. Processed human umbilical cord membrane has been recently developed with improved handling and resorption time compared to other amniotic membrane wraps, and may be beneficial in nerve reconstruction. This study evaluates postoperative outcomes after traumatic peripheral nerve injury after placement of commercially available processed human umbilical cord membrane.

Methods

We performed a prospective, single-center pilot study of patients undergoing multi-level surgical reconstruction for exposed, non-transected peripheral nerve. Functional outcomes including pain, range of motion, pinch and grip strength, and the QuickDASH and SF-36 patient-reported outcome measures were recorded, when possible, at the 1-week and 3, 6, and 9 months postop visit. One-tailed paired t-tests were performed to evaluate outcome improvement at final follow-up.

Results

Twenty patients had processed human umbilical cord membrane placement without surgical complications. Mean follow-up was 7.5 months (range: 3-10 months) and mean age was 39 years (range: 15-65). Twelve (67%) patients were male, and the majority of placement sites were in the upper extremity (85%). Mean preoperative visual analog scale pain score was significantly reduced at most recent follow-up, as were QuickDASH scores. All patients had improved functional outcomes at the 9-month follow-up, and SF-36 outcomes at 9 months showed improvement across all dimensions.

Conclusion

This study indicates that processed human umbilical cord membrane may be a useful adjunct in nerve surgery with noted improvements in postoperative function, pain, and patient-reported outcome measures. Future studies are needed to assess long-term outcomes after traumatic nerve injury treated with processed human umbilical cord membrane.

Heterologous fibrin biopolymer associated to a single suture stitch enables the return of neuromuscular junction to its mature pattern after peripheral nerve injury

Denervation leads to severe atrophy of neuromuscular junction (NMJ) structure including decrease of the expression of fundamental proteins. Up to now, conventional suture has been the gold standard method used to correct this injury. Fibrin sealant is one of the alternatives proposed to optimize this method. This study verified if the association of fibrin sealant - Heterologous Fibrin Biopolymer (HFB) and a single suture stitch promotes return of morphology and NMJ structure to mature pattern after peripheral nerve injury. Forty Wistar rats were distributed into 4 groups: Sham-Control (SC), Denervated-Control (DC), Suture-Lesion (SL) and Suture-Lesion + HFB (SFS). In SC group only the right sciatic nerve identification was done. In DC, SL and SFS groups fixation of nerve stumps on musculature immediately after neurotmesis was performed. After seven days, stump reconnection with 3 stitches in SL and a single stitch associated with HFB in SFS were done. After sixty days right soleus muscles were prepared for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and nerve terminal confocal analyses, and for nAChRs (α1, ε e γ), S100, Agrin, LRP-4, MMP-3, Rapsyn western blotting analyses. SC group presented normal morphology. In DC group it was observed flattening of NMJ, fragmentation of nAChRs and tangled nerve terminals. The majority of the parameters of SL and SFS groups presented values in between SC and DC groups. There was an increase of relative planar area in these groups (SL and SFS) highlighting that there was less nAChRs fragmentation and the values of protein expression showed return of nAChRs to mature pattern. Use of HFB associated with a single suture stitch decreased surgical time, minimized suture injuries, did not alter nerve regeneration and presented potential to reestablish the NMJ apparatus. These consolidated results encourage surgeons to develop future clinical trials to install definitively this new approach both for reconstructive surgery and neurosurgery.

ECM-Mimetic Nylon Nanofiber Scaffolds for Neurite Growth Guidance

Numerous nanostructured synthetic scaffolds mimicking the architecture of the natural extracellular matrix (ECM) have been described, but the polymeric nanofibers comprising the scaffold were substantially thicker than the natural collagen nanofibers of neural ECM. Here, we report neuron growth on electrospun scaffolds of nylon-4,6 fibers with an average diameter of 60 nm, which closely matches the diameter of collagen nanofibers of neural ECM, and compare their properties with the scaffolds of thicker 300 nm nanofibers. Previously unmodified nylon was not regarded as an independent nanostructured matrix for guided growth of neural cells; however, it is particularly useful for ultrathin nanofiber production. We demonstrate that, while both types of fibers stimulate directed growth of neuronal processes, ultrathin fibers are more efficient in promoting and accelerating neurite elongation. Both types of scaffolds also improved synaptogenesis and the formation of connections between hippocampal neurons; however, the mechanisms of interaction of neurites with the scaffolds were substantially different. While ultrathin fibers formed numerous weak immature β1-integrin-positive focal contacts localized over the entire cell surface, scaffolds of submicron fibers formed β1-integrin focal adhesions only on the cell soma. This indicates that the scaffold nanotopology can influence focal adhesion assembly involving various integrin subunits. The fabricated nanostructured scaffolds demonstrated high stability and resistance to biodegradation, as well as absence of toxic compound release after 1 month of incubation with live cells in vitro. Our results demonstrate the high potential of this novel type of nanofibers for clinical application as substrates facilitating regeneration of nervous tissue.

A directional 3D neurite outgrowth model for studying motor axon biology and disease

We report a method to generate a 3D motor neuron model with segregated and directed axonal outgrowth. iPSC-derived motor neurons are cultured in extracellular matrix gel in a microfluidic platform. Neurons extend their axons into an adjacent layer of gel, whereas dendrites and soma remain predominantly in the somal compartment, as verified by immunofluorescent staining. Axonal outgrowth could be precisely quantified and was shown to respond to the chemotherapeutic drug vincristine in a highly reproducible dose-dependent manner. The model was shown susceptible to excitotoxicity upon exposure with excess glutamate and showed formation of stress granules upon excess glutamate or sodium arsenite exposure, mimicking processes common in motor neuron diseases. Importantly, outgrowing axons could be attracted and repelled through a gradient of axonal guidance cues, such as semaphorins. The platform comprises 40 chips arranged underneath a microtiter plate providing both throughput and compatibility to standard laboratory equipment. The model will thus prove ideal for studying axonal biology and disease, drug discovery and regenerative medicine.

Heat shock protein is a key therapeutic target for nerve repair in autoimmune peripheral neuropathy and severe peripheral nerve injury

Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is an autoimmune peripheral neuropathy and a common cause of neuromuscular paralysis. Preceding infection induces the production of anti-ganglioside (GD) antibodies attacking its own peripheral nerves. In severe proximal peripheral nerve injuries that require long-distance axon regeneration, motor functional recovery is virtually nonexistent. Damaged axons fail to regrow and reinnervate target muscles. In mice, regenerating axons must reach the target muscle within 35 days (critical period) to reform functional neuromuscular junctions and regain motor function. Successful functional recovery depends on the rate of axon regeneration and debris removal (Wallerian degeneration) after nerve injury. The innate-immune response of the peripheral nervous system to nerve injury such as timing and magnitude of cytokine production is crucial for Wallerian degeneration. In the current study, forced expression of human heat shock protein (hHsp) 27 completely reversed anti-GD-induced inhibitory effects on nerve repair assessed by animal behavioral assays, electrophysiology and histology studies, and the beneficial effect was validated in a second mouse line of hHsp27. The protective effect of hHsp27 on prolonged muscle denervation was examined by performing repeated sciatic nerve crushes to delay regenerating axons from reaching distal muscle from 37 days up to 55 days. Strikingly, hHsp27 was able to extend the critical period of motor functional recovery for up to 55 days and preserve the integrity of axons and mitochondria in distal nerves. Cytokine array analysis demonstrated that a number of key cytokines which are heavily involved in the early phase of innate-immune response of Wallerian degeneration, were found to be upregulated in the sciatic nerve lysates of hHsp27 Tg mice at 1 day postinjury. However, persistent hyperinflammatory mediator changes were found after chronic denervation in sciatic nerves of littermate mice, but remained unchanged in hHsp27 Tg mice. Taken together, the current study provides insight into the development of therapeutic strategies to enhance muscle receptiveness (reinnervation) by accelerating axon regeneration and Wallerian degeneration.

Axonal regeneration and sprouting as a potential therapeutic target for nervous system disorders

Nervous system disorders are prevalent health issues that will only continue to increase in frequency as the population ages. Dying-back axonopathy is a hallmark of many neurologic diseases and leads to axonal disconnection from their targets, which in turn leads to functional impairment. During the course of many of neurologic diseases, axons can regenerate or sprout in an attempt to reconnect with the target and restore synapse function. In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), distal motor axons retract from neuromuscular junctions early in the disease-course before significant motor neuron death. There is evidence of compensatory motor axon sprouting and reinnervation of neuromuscular junctions in ALS that is usually quickly overtaken by the disease course. Potential drugs that enhance compensatory sprouting and encourage reinnervation may slow symptom progression and retain muscle function for a longer period of time in ALS and in other diseases that exhibit dying-back axonopathy. There remain many outstanding questions as to the impact of distinct disease-causing mutations on axonal outgrowth and regeneration, especially in regards to motor neurons derived from patient induced pluripotent stem cells. Compartmentalized microfluidic chambers are powerful tools for studying the distal axons of human induced pluripotent stem cells-derived motor neurons, and have recently been used to demonstrate striking regeneration defects in human motor neurons harboring ALS disease-causing mutations. Modeling the human neuromuscular circuit with human induced pluripotent stem cells-derived motor neurons will be critical for developing drugs that enhance axonal regeneration, sprouting, and reinnervation of neuromuscular junctions. In this review we will discuss compensatory axonal sprouting as a potential therapeutic target for ALS, and the use of compartmentalized microfluidic devices to find drugs that enhance regeneration and axonal sprouting of motor axons.

Human motor endplate remodeling after traumatic nerve injury

OBJECTIVE

Current management of traumatic peripheral nerve injuries is variable with operative decisions based on assumptions that irreversible degeneration of the human motor endplate (MEP) follows prolonged denervation and precludes reinnervation. However, the mechanism and time course of MEP changes after human peripheral nerve injury have not been investigated. Consequently, there are no objective measures by which to determine the probability of spontaneous recovery and the optimal timing of surgical intervention. To improve guidance for such decisions, the aim of this study was to characterize morphological changes at the human MEP following traumatic nerve injury.

METHODS

A prospective cohort (here analyzed retrospectively) of 18 patients with traumatic brachial plexus and axillary nerve injuries underwent biopsy of denervated muscles from the upper extremity from 3 days to 6 years after injury. Muscle specimens were processed for H & E staining and immunohistochemistry, with visualization via confocal and two-photon excitation microscopy.

RESULTS

Immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated varying degrees of fragmentation and acetylcholine receptor dispersion in denervated muscles. Comparison of denervated muscles at different times postinjury revealed progressively increasing degeneration. Linear regression analysis of 3D reconstructions revealed significant linear decreases in MEP volume (R = -0.92, R2 = 0.85, p = 0.001) and surface area (R = -0.75, R2 = 0.56, p = 0.032) as deltoid muscle denervation time increased. Surprisingly, innervated and structurally intact MEPs persisted in denervated muscle specimens from multiple patients 6 or more months after nerve injury, including 2 patients who had presented > 3 years after nerve injury.

CONCLUSIONS

This study details novel and critically important data about the morphology and temporal sequence of events involved in human MEP degradation after traumatic nerve injuries. Surprisingly, human MEPs not only persisted, but also retained their structures beyond the assumed 6-month window for therapeutic surgical intervention based on previous clinical studies. Preoperative muscle biopsy in patients being considered for nerve transfer may be a useful prognostic tool to determine MEP viability in denervated muscle, with surviving MEPs also being targets for adjuvant therapy.

Extracellular Vesicles as Innovative Tool for Diagnosis, Regeneration and Protection against Neurological Damage

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have recently attracted a great deal of interest as they may represent a new biosignaling paradigm. According to the mode of biogenesis, size and composition, two broad categories of EVs have been described, exosomes and microvesicles. EVs have been shown to carry cargoes of signaling proteins, RNA species, DNA and lipids. Once released, their content is selectively taken up by near or distant target cells, influencing their behavior. Exosomes are involved in cell–cell communication in a wide range of embryonic developmental processes and in fetal–maternal communication. In the present review, an outline of the role of EVs in neural development, regeneration and diseases is presented. EVs can act as regulators of normal homeostasis, but they can also promote either neuroinflammation/degeneration or tissue repair in pathological conditions, depending on their content. Since EV molecular cargo constitutes a representation of the origin cell status, EVs can be exploited in the diagnosis of several diseases. Due to their capability to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB), EVs not only have been suggested for the diagnosis of central nervous system disorders by means of minimally invasive procedures, i.e., “liquid biopsies”, but they are also considered attractive tools for targeted drug delivery across the BBB. From the therapeutic perspective, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) represent one of the most promising sources of EVs. In particular, the neuroprotective properties of MSCs derived from the dental pulp are here discussed.

Rapid-Stretch Injury to Peripheral Nerves: Histologic Results

BACKGROUND

Although most severe peripheral nerve injuries result from high-speed mechanisms, there is no laboratory model to replicate this clinical condition.

OBJECTIVE

To qualitatively and quantitatively describe microanatomical injury of rapid stretch.

METHODS

The sciatic nerves of 36 Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to rapid-stretch nerve injury, using fixed-direction strain produced via constrained weight drop applied to an intact nerve. Nerve injury severity was categorized by biomechanical parameters. Injury to nerve microarchitecture was quantified with serial longitudinal sectioning, with specific focus on the endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium.

RESULTS

Four grades of stretch injury severity were determined by mathematical cluster analysis: sham, elastic stretch, inelastic stretch, and stretch rupture. Two patterns of injury to endoneurial architecture were quantified: loss of fiber undulation (straightened fibers) and rupturing of individual fibers ("microruptures"). Straightening of nerve fibers was the earliest accommodation to stretch injury and accounted for elongation during elastic stretch. Microruptures were distributed along the length of the nerve and were more severe and involved greater volume of the nerve at higher biomechanical severity. Epineurium and perineurium disruption increased in frequency with progressive injury severity, yet did not predict transition from one injury grade to another (P = .3), nor was it a hallmark of severe injury. Conversely, accumulation of microruptures provided strong correlation to nerve injury severity (Pearson's R = .9897) and progression to mechanical failure.

CONCLUSION

Nerve architecture is injured in a graded fashion during stretch injury, which likely reflects tissue biomechanics. This study suggests new considerations in the theoretical framework of nerve stretch trauma.

Development and Characterisation of an in vitro Model of Wallerian Degeneration

Following peripheral nerve injury, a sequence of events termed Wallerian degeneration (WD) takes place at the distal stump in order to allow the regenerating axons to grow back toward the target organs. Schwann cells (SCs) play a lead role in this by initiating the inflammatory response attracting macrophages and immune cells, as well as producing neurotrophic signals that are essential for nerve regeneration. The majority of existing research has focused on tools to improve regeneration, overlooking the critical degeneration phase. This is also due to the lack of in vitro models recapitulating the features of in vivo WD. In particular, to understand the initial SC response following injury, and to investigate potential interventions, a model that isolates the nerve from other systemic influences is required. Stem cell intervention has been extensively studied as a potential therapeutic intervention to augment regeneration; however, data regarding their role in WD is lacking. Thus, in this study we describe an in vitro model using rat sciatic nerve explants degenerating up to 14 days. Characterisation of this model was performed by gene and protein expression for key markers of WD, in addition to immunohistochemical analysis and electron microscopy. We found changes in keeping with WD in vivo: upregulation of repair program protein CJUN, downregulation of myelin protein genes and subsequent disorganisation and breakdown of myelin structure. As a means of testing the effects of stem cell intervention on WD we established indirect co-cultures of human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AD-MSC) with the degenerating nerve explants. The stem cell intervention potentiated neurotrophic factors and Cjun expression. We conclude that our in vitro model shares the main features of in vivo WD, and we provide proof of principle on its effectiveness to study experimental approaches for nerve regeneration focused on the events happening during WD.

Pharmacological BACE Inhibition Improves Axonal Regeneration in Nerve Injury and Disease Models

While the peripheral nervous system is able to repair itself following injury and disease, recovery is often slow and incomplete, with no available treatments to enhance the effectiveness of regeneration. Using knock-out and transgenic overexpressor mice, we previously reported that BACE1, an aspartyl protease, as reported by Hemming et al. (PLoS One 4:12, 2009), negatively regulates peripheral nerve regeneration. Here, we investigated whether pharmacological inhibition of BACE may enhance peripheral nerve repair following traumatic nerve injury or neurodegenerative disease. BACE inhibitor-treated mice had increased numbers of regenerating axons and enhanced functional recovery after a sciatic nerve crush while inhibition increased axonal sprouting following a partial nerve injury. In the SOD1G93A ALS mouse model, BACE inhibition increased axonal regeneration with improved muscle re-innervation. CHL1, a BACE1 substrate, was elevated in treated mice and may mediate enhanced regeneration. Our data demonstrates that pharmacological BACE inhibition accelerates peripheral axon regeneration after varied nerve injuries and could be used as a potential therapy.

A Nanofiber Sheet Incorporating Vitamin B12 Promotes Nerve Regeneration in a Rat Neurorrhaphy Model

Outcomes of peripheral nerve repair after injury are often suboptimal. Therefore, developing biological approaches to augment nerve regeneration is important. In this in vivo study, we tested the hypothesis that augmentation with an electrospun nanofiber sheet incorporating methylcobalamin (MeCbl) would be effective for regeneration after peripheral nerve transection and repair.

Methods

Rats were divided into 3 groups that either underwent sciatic nerve repair with or without the MeCbl sheet, or a sham operation. At 4 and/or 8 weeks after the operation, sensory and motor functional recovery, along with histological findings, were compared among the groups using the toe-spreading test, mechanical and thermal algesimetry tests, tibialis anterior muscle weight measurements, electrophysiological analyses, which included nerve conduction velocity (NCV), compound muscle action potential (CMAP), and terminal latency (TL), and histological analyses involving the myelinated axon ratio, axon diameter, and total axon number.

Results

Compared with the repair group without the MeCbl sheet, the repair group with the MeCbl sheet showed significant recovery in terms of tibialis anterior muscle weight, NCV and CMAP, and also tended to improve in the toe-spreading test, mechanical and thermal algesimetry tests, and TL. Histological analyses also demonstrated that the myelinated axon ratios and axon diameters were significantly higher. Among these findings, the repair group with the MeCbl sheet demonstrated the same recovery in NCV as the sham group.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that electrospun nanofiber MeCbl sheets promoted nerve regeneration and functional recovery, indicating that this treatment strategy may be viable for human peripheral nerve injuries.

Lipid metabolism adaptations are reduced in human compared to murine Schwann cells following injury

Mammals differ in their regeneration potential after traumatic injury, which might be caused by species-specific regeneration programs. Here, we compared murine and human Schwann cell (SC) response to injury and developed an ex vivo injury model employing surgery-derived human sural nerves. Transcriptomic and lipid metabolism analysis of murine SCs following injury of sural nerves revealed down-regulation of lipogenic genes and regulator of lipid metabolism, including Pparg (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma) and S1P (sphingosine-1-phosphate). Human SCs failed to induce similar adaptations following ex vivo nerve injury. Pharmacological PPARg and S1P stimulation in mice resulted in up-regulation of lipid gene expression, suggesting a role in SCs switching towards a myelinating state. Altogether, our results suggest that murine SC switching towards a repair state is accompanied by transcriptome and lipidome adaptations, which are reduced in humans.

Fascicular Ratio Pilot Study: High-Resolution Neurosonography-A Possible Tool for Quantitative Assessment of Traumatic Peripheral Nerve Lesions Before and After Nerve Surgery

BACKGROUND

Clinical and electrophysiological assessments prevail in evaluation of traumatic nerve lesions and their regeneration following nerve surgery in humans. Recently, high-resolution neurosonography (HRNS) and magnetic resonance neurography have gained significant importance in peripheral nerve imaging. The use of the grey-scale-based "fascicular ratio" (FR) was established using both modalities allowing for quantitative assessment.

OBJECTIVE

To find out whether FR using HRNS can assess nerve trauma and structural reorganization in correlation to postoperative clinical development.

METHODS

Retrospectively, 16 patients with operated traumatic peripheral nerve lesions were included. The control group consisted of 6 healthy volunteers. All imaging was performed with a 15 to 6 MHz ultrasound probe (SonoSite X-Porte; Fujifilm, Tokyo, Japan). FR was calculated using Fiji () on 8-bit-images ("MaxEntropy" using "Auto-Threshold" plug-in).

RESULTS

Thirteen of 16 patients required autologous nerve grafting and 3 of 16 extra-intraneural neurolysis. There was no statistical difference between the FR of nonaffected patients' nerve portion with 43.48% and controls with FR 48.12%. The neuromatous nerve portion in grafted patients differed significantly with 85.05%. Postoperatively, FR values returned to normal with a mean of 39.33%. In the neurolyzed patients, FR in the affected portion was 78.54%. After neurolysis, FR returned to healthy values (50.79%). Ten of 16 patients showed clinical reinnervation.

CONCLUSION

To our best knowledge, this is the first description of FR using HRNS for quantitative assessment of nerve damage and postoperative structural reorganization. Our results show a significant difference in healthy vs lesioned nerves and a change in recovering nerve portions towards a more "physiological" ratio. Further evaluation in larger patient groups is required.

Rapid Stretch Injury to Peripheral Nerves: Biomechanical Results

BACKGROUND

Although most adult brachial plexus injuries result from high-speed mechanisms, no laboratory model has been created to mimic rapid-stretch nerve injuries. Understanding the biomechanical response of nerves to rapid stretch is essential to understanding clinical injury patterns and developing models that mimic the clinical scenario.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the influence of rate, loading direction, and excursion of stretch injuries on the biomechanical properties of peripheral nerves.

METHODS

The sciatic nerves of 138 Sprague-Dawley rats were dissected and subjected to rapid- and slow-stretch methods. Maximal nerve strain, persistent deformation, regional strain variation, and location of nerve failure were recorded.

RESULTS

Nerve rupture was primarily determined by weight-drop momentum >1 N/sec (odds ratio = 27.8, P < .0001), suggesting a threshold condition. Loading direction strongly determined maximal strain at rupture (P = .028); pull along the nerve axis resulted in nerve rupture at lower strain than orthogonal loading. Regional variations in nerve compliance and rupture location correlated with anatomic zones. Nerve branch anatomy was the largest contributing factor on maximum strain and rupture location. Rapidly stretched nerves are characterized by a zone of elastic recovery, followed by inelastic response at increasing strain, and finally rupture.

CONCLUSION

The large variation in previous results for nerve strain at rupture can be attributed to different testing conditions and is largely due to loading direction or segment of nerve tested, which has significant clinical implications. Nerve stretch injuries do not reflect a continuous variability to applied force but instead fall into biomechanical patterns of elastic, inelastic, and rupture injuries.

Examination of the human motor endplate after brachial plexus injury with two-photon microscopy

INTRODUCTION

After traumatic nerve injury, neuromuscular junction remodeling plays a key role in determining functional outcomes. Immunohistochemical analyses of denervated muscle biopsies may provide valuable prognostic data regarding clinical outcomes to supplement electrodiagnostic studies.

METHODS

We performed biopsies on nonfunctioning deltoid muscles in two patients after gunshot wounds and visualized the neuromuscular junctions using two-photon microscopy with immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Although the nerves in both patients showed evidence of acute Wallerian degeneration, some of the motor endplates were intact but exhibited significantly decreased surface area and volume. Both patients exhibited substantial recovery of motor function over several weeks postinjury.

DISCUSSION

Two-photon microscopic assessment of neuromuscular junction integrity and motor endplate morphometry in muscle biopsies provided evidence of partial sparing of muscle innervation. This finding supported the clinical judgment that eventual recovery would occur. With further study, this technique may help to guide operative decisionmaking after traumatic nerve injuries.

Regenerative medicine and drug delivery: Progress via electrospun biomaterials

Worldwide research on electrospinning enabled it as a versatile technique for producing nanofibers with specified physio-chemical characteristics suitable for diverse biomedical applications. In the case of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, the nanofiber scaffolds' characteristics are custom designed based on the cells and tissues specific needs. This fabrication technique is also innovated for the production of nanofibers with special micro-structure and secondary structure characteristics such as porous fibers, hollow structure, and core- sheath structure. This review attempts to critically and succinctly capture the vast number of developments reported in the literature over the past two decades. We then discuss their applications as scaffolds for induction of cells growth and differentiation or as architecture for being used as graft for tissue engineering. The special nanofibers designed for improving regeneration of several tissues including heart, bone, central nerve system, spinal cord, skin and ocular tissue are introduced. We also discuss the potential of the electrospinning in drug delivery applications, which is a critical factor for cell culture, tissue formation and wound healing applications.

Label-free Imaging of Tissue Architecture during Axolotl Peripheral Nerve Regeneration in Comparison to Functional Recovery

Human peripheral nerves hold the potential to regenerate after injuries; however, whether a successful axonal regrowth was achieved can be elucidated only months after injury by assessing function. The axolotl salamander is a regenerative model where nerves always regenerate quickly and fully after all types of injury. Here, de- and regeneration of the axolotl sciatic nerve were investigated in a single and double injury model by label-free multiphoton imaging in comparison to functional recovery. We used coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering to visualize myelin fragmentation and axonal regeneration. The presence of axons at the lesion site corresponded to onset of functional recovery in both lesion models. In addition, we detected axonal regrowth later in the double injury model in agreement with a higher severity of injury. Moreover, endogenous two-photon excited fluorescence visualized macrophages and revealed a similar timecourse of inflammation in both injury models, which did not correlate with functional recovery. Finally, using the same techniques, axonal structure and status of myelin were visualized in vivo after sciatic nerve injury. Label-free imaging is a new experimental approach that provides mechanistic insights in animal models, with the potential to be used in the future for investigation of regeneration after nerve injuries in humans.

Neurons-derived extracellular vesicles promote neural differentiation of ADSCs: a model to prevent peripheral nerve degeneration

Potential mechanisms involved in neural differentiation of adipocyte derived stem cells (ADSCs) are still unclear. In the present study, extracellular vesicles (EVs) were tested as a potential mechanism involved in the neuronal differentiation of stem cells. In order to address this, ADSCs and neurons (BRC) were established in primary culture and co-culture at three timepoints. Furthermore, we evaluated protein and transcript levels of differentiated ADSCs from the same timepoints, to confirm phenotype change to neuronal linage. Importantly, neuron-derived EVs cargo and EVs originated from co-culture were analyzed and tested in terms of function, such as gene expression and microRNA levels related to the adult neurogenesis process. Ideal neuron-like cells were identified and, therefore, we speculated the in vivo function of these cells in acute sciatic nerve injury. Overall, our data demonstrated that ADSCs in indirect contact with neurons differentiated into neuron-like cells. Neuron-derived EVs appear to play an important role in this process carrying SNAP25, miR-132 and miR-9. Additionally, in vivo neuron-like cells helped in microenvironment modulation probably preventing peripheral nerve injury degeneration. Consequently, our findings provide new insight of future methods of ADSC induction into neuronal linage to be applied in peripheral nerve (PN) injury.

Polyethylene Glycol: The Future of Posttraumatic Nerve Repair? Systemic Review

Peripheral nerve injury is a common posttraumatic complication. The precise surgical repair of nerve lesion does not always guarantee satisfactory motor and sensory function recovery. Therefore, enhancement of the regeneration process is a subject of many research strategies. It is believed that polyethylene glycol (PEG) mediates axolemmal fusion, thus enabling the direct restoration of axon continuity. It also inhibits Wallerian degeneration and recovers nerve conduction. This systemic review, performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, describes and summarizes published studies on PEG treatment efficiency in various nerve injury types and repair techniques. Sixteen original experimental studies in animal models and one in humans were analyzed. PEG treatment superiority was reported in almost all experiments (based on favorable electrophysiological, histological, or behavioral results). To date, only one study attempted to transfer the procedure into the clinical phase. However, some technical aspects, e.g., the maximal delay between trauma and successful treatment, await determination. PEG therapy is a promising prospect that may improve the surgical treatment of peripheral nerve injuries in the clinical practice.

A multi-layered nerve guidance conduit design adapted to facilitate surgical implantation

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The gold standard procedure after a severe nerve injury is the nerve autograft, yet this technique has drawbacks. In recent years, progress has been made in the development of artificial nerve guides to replace the autograft, but no device has been able to demonstrate superiority. The present study introduces an adaptable foundation design for peripheral nerve regeneration.

METHODS

Silk fibroin was electrospun, creating a tri-layered material with aligned fiber surfaces and a randomly deposited fiber interior. This material was rolled into a micro-channeled conduit, which was then enveloped by a jacket layer of the same tri-layered material.

RESULTS

The proposed implant design succeeds in incorporating various desirable aspects of synthetic nerve guides, while facilitating the surgical implantation process for medical application. The aligned fiber surfaces of the conduit support axon guidance, while the tri-layered architecture improves its structural integrity compared with a fully aligned fiber material. Moreover, the jacket layer creates a small niche on each end which facilitates surgical implantation. An in vivo study in rats showed that nerve regeneration using this device was comparable to results after direct suture.

CONCLUSION

This proof-of-principle study, therefore, advances the development of tissue engineered nerve grafts by creating an optimized guidance conduit design capable of successful nerve regeneration.

3D melatonin nerve scaffold reduces oxidative stress and inflammation and increases autophagy in peripheral nerve regeneration

Peripheral nerve defect is a common and severe kind of injury in traumatic accidents. Melatonin can improve peripheral nerve recovery by inhibiting oxidative stress and inflammation after traumatic insults. In addition, it triggers autophagy pathways to increase regenerated nerve proliferation and to reduce apoptosis. In this study, we fabricated a melatonin-controlled-release scaffold to cure long-range nerve defects for the first time. 3D manufacture of melatonin/polycaprolactone nerve guide conduit increased Schwann cell proliferation and neural expression in vitro and promoted functional, electrophysiological and morphological nerve regeneration in vivo. Melatonin nerve guide conduit ameliorated immune milieu by reducing oxidative stress, inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction. In addition, it activated autophagy to restore ideal microenvironment, to provide energy for nerves and to reduce nerve cell apoptosis, thus facilitating nerve debris clearance and neural proliferation. This innovative scaffold will have huge significance in the nerve engineering.

Glial-derived neurotrophic factor is essential for blood-nerve barrier functional recovery in an experimental murine model of traumatic peripheral neuropathy

There is emerging evidence that glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a potent inducer of restrictive barrier function in tight junction-forming microvascular endothelium and epithelium, including the human blood-nerve barrier (BNB) in vitro. We sought to determine the role of GDNF in restoring BNB function in vivo by evaluating sciatic nerve horseradish peroxidase (HRP) permeability in tamoxifen-inducible GDNF conditional knockout (CKO) adult mice following non-transecting crush injury via electron microscopy, with appropriate wildtype (WT) and heterozygous (HET) littermate controls. A total of 24 age-, genotype- and sex-matched mice >12 weeks of age were injected with 30 mg/kg HRP via tail vein injection 7 or 14 days following unilateral sciatic nerve crush, and both sciatic nerves were harvested 30 minutes later for morphometric assessment by light and electron microscopy. The number and percentage of HRP-permeable endoneurial microvessels were ascertained to determine the effect of GDNF in restoring barrier function in vivo. Following sciatic nerve crush, there was significant upregulation in GDNF protein expression in WT and HET mice that was abrogated in CKO mice. GDNF significantly restored sciatic nerve BNB HRP impermeability to near normal levels by day 7, with complete restoration seen by day 14 in WT and HET mice. A significant recovery lag was observed in CKO mice. This effect was independent on VE-Cadherin or claudin-5 expression on endoneurial microvessels. These results imply an important role of GDNF in restoring restrictive BNB function in vivo, suggesting a potential strategy to re-establish the restrictive endoneurial microenvironment following traumatic peripheral neuropathies.

Kinematic patterns for hindlimb obstacle avoidance during sheep locomotion

Functional recovery following general nerve reconstruction is often associated with poor results. Comparing to rat and mice experimental studies, there are much fewer investigations on nerve regeneration and repair in the sheep, and there are no studies on this subject using gait analysis in the sheep model as an assessment tool. Additionally, this is the first study evaluating obstacle negotiation and the compensatory strategies that take place at each joint in response to the obstacle during locomotion in the sheep model. This study aims to get kinematic data to serve as a template for an objective assessment of the ankle joint motion in future studies of common peroneal nerve (CP) injury and repair in the ovine model. Our results show that a moderately high obstacle set to 10% of the sheep's hindlimb length was associated to several spatial and temporal strategies in order to increase hoof height during obstacle negotiating. Sheep efficiently cleared an obstacle by increasing knee, ankle and metatarsophalangeal flexion during swing, whereas the hip joint is not affected. This study establishes the bounds of normal motion in the neurologically intact hindlimb when approached and cleared an obstacle and provides baseline data for further studies of peripheral nerve research in the ovine model.