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Zhang F, Ye Z, Ran Y, Liu C, Zhang M, Xu X, Song F, Yao L. Ruthenium red alleviates post-resuscitation myocardial dysfunction by upregulating mitophagy through inhibition of USP33 in a cardiac arrest rat model. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 974:176633. [PMID: 38703975 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Cardiac arrest (CA) remains a leading cause of death, with suboptimal survival rates despite efforts involving cardiopulmonary resuscitation and advanced life-support technology. Post-resuscitation myocardial dysfunction (PRMD) is an important determinant of patient outcomes. Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury underlies this dysfunction. Previous reports have shown that ruthenium red (RR) has a protective effect against cardiac ischemia-reperfusion injury; however, its precise mechanism of action in PRMD remains unclear. This study investigated the effects of RR on PRMD and analyzed its underlying mechanisms. Ventricular fibrillation was induced in rats, which were then subjected to cardiopulmonary resuscitation to establish an experimental CA model. At the onset of return of spontaneous circulation, RR (2.5 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally. Our study showed that RR improved myocardial function and reduced the production of oxidative stress markers such as malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GSSG), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. RR also helped maintain mitochondrial structure and increased ATP and GTP levels. Additionally, RR effectively attenuated myocardial apoptosis. Furthermore, we observed downregulation of proteins closely related to mitophagy, including ubiquitin-specific protease 33 (USP33) and P62, whereas LC3B (microtubule-associated protein light chain 3B) was upregulated. The upregulation of mitophagy may play a critical role in reducing myocardial injury. These results demonstrate that RR may attenuate PRMD by promoting mitophagy through the inhibition of USP33. These effects are likely mediated through diverse mechanisms, including antioxidant activity, apoptosis suppression, and preservation of mitochondrial integrity and energy metabolism. Consequently, RR has emerged as a promising therapeutic approach for addressing post-resuscitation myocardial dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Zhang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China; Institute of Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510000, China
| | - Zhou Ye
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China; Institute of Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510000, China
| | - Yingqi Ran
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| | - Cong Liu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| | - Mingtao Zhang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| | - Xiangchang Xu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| | - Fengqing Song
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510120, China; Institute of Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510000, China.
| | - Lan Yao
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China.
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2
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Xia Y, Zou C, Kang W, Xu T, Shao R, Zeng P, Sun B, Chen J, Qi Y, Wang Z, Lin T, Zhu H, Shen Y, Wang X, Guo S, Cui D. Invasive metastatic tumor-camouflaged ROS responsive nanosystem for targeting therapeutic brain injury after cardiac arrest. Biomaterials 2024; 311:122678. [PMID: 38917705 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2024.122678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Drug transmission through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is considered an arduous challenge for brain injury treatment following the return of spontaneous circulation after cardiac arrest (CA-ROSC). Inspired by the propensity of melanoma metastasis to the brain, B16F10 cell membranes are camouflaged on 2-methoxyestradiol (2ME2)-loaded reactive oxygen species (ROS)-triggered "Padlock" nanoparticles that are constructed by phenylboronic acid pinacol esters conjugated D-a-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS-PBAP). The biomimetic nanoparticles (BM@TP/2ME2) can be internalized, mainly mediated by the mutual recognition and interaction between CD44v6 expressed on B16F10 cell membranes and hyaluronic acid on cerebral vascular endothelial cells, and they responsively release 2ME2 by the oxidative stress microenvironment. Notably, BM@TP/2ME2 can scavenge excessive ROS to reestablish redox balance, reverse neuroinflammation, and restore autophagic flux in damaged neurons, eventually exerting a remarkable neuroprotective effect after CA-ROSC in vitro and in vivo. This biomimetic drug delivery system is a novel and promising strategy for the treatment of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury after CA-ROSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyang Xia
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, PR China
| | - Chenming Zou
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Weichao Kang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, PR China
| | - Tianhua Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, PR China
| | - Rongjiao Shao
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200030, PR China
| | - Ping Zeng
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Bixi Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Jie Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, PR China
| | - Yiming Qi
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Zhaozhong Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Tiancheng Lin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, PR China
| | - Haichao Zhu
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Yuanyuan Shen
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Xintao Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, PR China.
| | - Shengrong Guo
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China.
| | - Derong Cui
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, PR China.
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Li J, Wu J, Zhou X, Lu Y, Ge Y, Zhang X. Targeting neuronal mitophagy in ischemic stroke: an update. BURNS & TRAUMA 2023; 11:tkad018. [PMID: 37274155 PMCID: PMC10232375 DOI: 10.1093/burnst/tkad018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia is a neurological disorder associated with complex pathological mechanisms, including autophagic degradation of neuronal mitochondria, or termed mitophagy, following ischemic events. Despite being well-documented, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of neuronal mitophagy remain unknown. So far, the evidence suggests neuronal autophagy and mitophagy are separately regulated in ischemic neurons, the latter being more likely activated by reperfusional injury. Specifically, given the polarized morphology of neurons, mitophagy is regulated by different neuronal compartments, with axonal mitochondria being degraded by autophagy in the cell body following ischemia-reperfusion insult. A variety of molecules have been associated with neuronal adaptation to ischemia, including PTEN-induced kinase 1, Parkin, BCL2 and adenovirus E1B 19-kDa-interacting protein 3 (Bnip3), Bnip3-like (Bnip3l) and FUN14 domain-containing 1. Moreover, it is still controversial whether mitophagy protects against or instead aggravates ischemic brain injury. Here, we review recent studies on this topic and provide an updated overview of the role and regulation of mitophagy during ischemic events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Li
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Qingchun Road 79, Xiacheng District, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiaying Wu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Qingchun Road 79, Xiacheng District, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xinyu Zhou
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Yuhangtang Road 866, Xihu District, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yangyang Lu
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Yuhangtang Road 866, Xihu District, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuyang Ge
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Yuhangtang Road 866, Xihu District, Hangzhou, China
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4
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Lin C, Li L, Xu Q, Xu S, Tang C. Yap1-Usp14 Axis Inhibits Neuronal Mitophagy During Neonatal Hypoxia-Ischemia Encephalopathy by Regulation of Beclin-1 Ubiquitination in Mouse. Mol Neurobiol 2023:10.1007/s12035-023-03344-5. [PMID: 37062801 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03344-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) that results from perinatal cerebral hypoxia-ischemia has become one of the leading causes of acute mortality and chronic disability in infants and children. Despite that neuronal mitophagy and subsequent clearance of damaged neurons exert protective effect, the pathogenesis of HIE and effective treatment strategies for intervention of HIE remain poorly understood. Here, we report that ubiquitin-specific protease 14 (Usp14, a deubiquitinating enzyme) is closely associated with HIE progression by its negative regulation in neuronal mitophagy in mouse. The expression of Usp14 is elevated in both an oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) mouse neuronal cell line culture model in vitro and a HIE mouse model in vivo. Mechanistically, OGD treatment activates Hippo signaling that enhances Yap1 phosphorylation levels at Ser-127 but inhibits Yap1 protein level, which potentiates Usp14 transcription and leads to the downregulated ubiquitination at Lys-63 of Beclin-1, a key molecule in autophagy, resulting in the suppressed neuronal mitophagy, subsequent failure in the clearance of damaged neurons, and finally possible dysregulation in brain functions. Thus, our results provide with Usp14 as a novel target and treatment strategy for intervention of HIE, which may help diagnose and treat HIE in clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Lin
- National Clinical Research Center for Child Health of the Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310052, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310052, China
| | - Lin Li
- Depanrtment of Urology, Third Affiliated Hospital of the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 201805, China
| | - Qiang Xu
- National Clinical Research Center for Child Health of the Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310052, China
| | - Shouying Xu
- National Clinical Research Center for Child Health of the Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310052, China
| | - Chao Tang
- National Clinical Research Center for Child Health of the Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310052, China.
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Jiao Y, Wang J, Jia Y, Xue M. Remote ischemic preconditioning protects against cerebral ischemia injury in rats by upregulating miR-204-5p and activating the PINK1/Parkin signaling pathway. Metab Brain Dis 2022; 37:945-959. [PMID: 35067796 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-022-00910-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Remote ischemic preconditioning (RiPC) is the process where preconditioning ischemia protects the organs against the subsequent index ischemia. RiPC is a protective method for brain damage. This study is to explore the effect and mechanism of RiPC in cerebral ischemia injury in rats through regulation of miR-204-5p/BRD4 expression. Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rat model and glucose deprivation (OGD) neuron model were established. The effect of RiPC on neurological deficits, cerebral infarct size, autophagy marker, inflammatory cytokines and apoptosis was evaluated. miR-204-5p expression was analyzed using RT-qPCR, and then downregulated using miR-204-5p antagomir to estimate its effect on MCAO rats. The downstream mechanism of miR-204-5p was explored. RiPC promoted autophagy, reduced cerebral infarct volume and neurological deficit score, and alleviated apoptosis and cerebral ischemia injury in rats, with no significant effects on healthy rat brains. RiPC up-regulated miR-204-5p expression in MCAO rats. miR-204-5p knockdown partially reversed the effect of RiPC. RiPC promoted autophagy in OGD cells, and attenuated inflammation and apoptosis. miR-204-5p targeted BRD4, which partially reversed the effect of miR-204-5p on OGD cells. RiPC activated the PINK1/Parkin pathway via the miR-204-5p/BRD4 axis. In conclusion, RiPC activated the PINK1/Parkin pathway and prevented cerebral ischemia injury by up-regulating miR-204-5p and inhibiting BRD4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiming Jiao
- The Departments of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 2 Jingba Road, Zhengzhou, 450001, Henan, China
- Henan Medical Key Laboratory of Translational Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Jinlan Wang
- The Departments of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 2 Jingba Road, Zhengzhou, 450001, Henan, China
- Henan Medical Key Laboratory of Translational Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Yanjie Jia
- The Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Mengzhou Xue
- The Departments of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 2 Jingba Road, Zhengzhou, 450001, Henan, China.
- Henan Medical Key Laboratory of Translational Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
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6
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Role of Mitophagy in the Pathogenesis of Stroke: From Mechanism to Therapy. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:6232902. [PMID: 35265262 PMCID: PMC8898771 DOI: 10.1155/2022/6232902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria can supply adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to the tissue, which can regulate metabolism during the pathologic process and is also involved in the pathophysiology of neuronal injury after stroke. Recent studies have suggested that selective autophagy could play important roles in the pathophysiological process of stroke, especially mitophagy. It is usually mediated by the PINK1/Parkin-independent pathway or PINK1/Parkin-dependent pathway. Moreover, mitophagy may be a potential target in the therapy of stroke because the control of mitophagy is neuroprotective in stroke in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we briefly summarize recent researches in mitophagy, introduce the role of mitophagy in the pathogenesis of stroke, then highlight the strategies targeting mitophagy in the treatment of stroke, and finally propose several issues in the treatment of stroke by targeting mitophagy.
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7
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Tian H, Chen X, Liao J, Yang T, Cheng S, Mei Z, Ge J. Mitochondrial quality control in stroke: From the mechanisms to therapeutic potentials. J Cell Mol Med 2022; 26:1000-1012. [PMID: 35040556 PMCID: PMC8831937 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.17189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial damage is a critical contributor to stroke‐induced injury, and mitochondrial quality control (MQC) is the cornerstone of restoring mitochondrial homeostasis and plays an indispensable role in alleviating pathological process of stroke. Mitochondria quality control promotes neuronal survival via various adaptive responses for preserving mitochondria structure, morphology, quantity and function. The processes of mitochondrial fission and fusion allow for damaged mitochondria to be segregated and facilitate the equilibration of mitochondrial components such as DNA, proteins and metabolites. The process of mitophagy is responsible for the degradation and recycling of damaged mitochondria. This review aims to offer a synopsis of the molecular mechanisms involved in MQC for recapitulating our current understanding of the complex role that MQC plays in the progression of stroke. Speculating on the prospect that targeted manipulation of MQC mechanisms may be exploited for the rationale design of novel therapeutic interventions in the ischaemic stroke and haemorrhagic stroke. In the review, we highlight the potential of MQC as therapeutic targets for stroke treatment and provide valuable insights for clinical strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heyan Tian
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-cerebral Disease, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Xiangyu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-cerebral Disease, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Jun Liao
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-cerebral Disease, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Tong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-cerebral Disease, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Shaowu Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-cerebral Disease, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Zhigang Mei
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-cerebral Disease, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Jinwen Ge
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-cerebral Disease, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
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Saraji A, Sydykov A, Schäfer K, Garcia-Castro CF, Henneke I, Alebrahimdehkordi N, Kosanovic D, Hadzic S, Guenther A, Hecker M, Ghofrani HA, Seeger W, Schermuly RT, Weissmann N, Sommer N, Pak O. PINK1-mediated Mitophagy Contributes to Pulmonary Vascular Remodeling in Pulmonary Hypertension. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2021; 65:226-228. [PMID: 34328407 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2021-0082le] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ingrid Henneke
- Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Germany.,Institute for Lung Health Giessen, Germany
| | | | - Djuro Kosanovic
- Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Germany.,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University Moscow, Russia
| | | | | | | | - Hossein A Ghofrani
- Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Germany.,Imperial College London London, United Kingdom
| | - Werner Seeger
- Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Germany.,Institute for Lung Health Giessen, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Oleg Pak
- Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Germany
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Ahn JH, Lee TK, Tae HJ, Kim B, Sim H, Lee JC, Kim DW, Kim YS, Shin MC, Park Y, Cho JH, Park JH, Lee CH, Choi SY, Won MH. Neuronal Death in the CNS Autonomic Control Center Comes Very Early after Cardiac Arrest and Is Not Significantly Attenuated by Prompt Hypothermic Treatment in Rats. Cells 2021; 10:E60. [PMID: 33401719 PMCID: PMC7824613 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Autonomic dysfunction in the central nervous system (CNS) can cause death after recovery from a cardiac arrest (CA). However, few studies on histopathological changes in animal models of CA have been reported. In this study, we investigated the prevalence of neuronal death and damage in various brain regions and the spinal cord at early times after asphyxial CA and we studied the relationship between the mortality rate and neuronal damage following hypothermic treatment after CA. Rats were subjected to 7-8 min of asphyxial CA, followed by resuscitation and prompt hypothermic treatment. Eight regions related to autonomic control (the cingulate cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, myelencephalon, and spinal cord) were examined using cresyl violet (a marker for Nissl substance) and Fluoro-Jade B (a marker for neuronal death). The survival rate was 44.5% 1 day post-CA, 18.2% 2 days post-CA and 0% 5 days post-CA. Neuronal death started 12 h post-CA in the gigantocellular reticular nucleus and caudoventrolateral reticular nucleus in the myelencephalon and lamina VII in the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral spinal cord, of which neurons are related to autonomic lower motor neurons. In these regions, Iba-1 immunoreactivity indicating microglial activation (microgliosis) was gradually increased with time after CA. Prompt hypothermic treatment increased the survival rate at 5 days after CA with an attenuation of neuronal damages and death in the damaged regions. However, the survival rate was 0% at 12 days after CA. Taken together, our study suggests that the early damage and death of neurons related to autonomic lower motor neurons was significantly related to the high mortality rate after CA and that prompt hypothermic therapy could increase the survival rate temporarily after CA, but could not ultimately save the animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hyeon Ahn
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Health Science, Youngsan University, Yangsan 50510, Korea;
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (B.K.); (H.S.); (J.-C.L.)
| | - Tae-Kyeong Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chuncheon 24252, Korea;
| | - Hyun-Jin Tae
- Bio-Safety Research Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonbuk National University, Iksan 54596, Korea;
| | - Bora Kim
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (B.K.); (H.S.); (J.-C.L.)
| | - Hyejin Sim
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (B.K.); (H.S.); (J.-C.L.)
| | - Jae-Chul Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (B.K.); (H.S.); (J.-C.L.)
| | - Dae Won Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Research Institute of Oral Sciences, College of Dentistry, Gangnung-Wonju National University, Gangneung 25457, Korea;
| | - Yoon Sung Kim
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Samcheok Medical Center, Samcheok 25920, Korea;
| | - Myoung Cheol Shin
- Department of Emergency Medicine, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (M.C.S.); (Y.P.); (J.H.C.)
| | - Yoonsoo Park
- Department of Emergency Medicine, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (M.C.S.); (Y.P.); (J.H.C.)
| | - Jun Hwi Cho
- Department of Emergency Medicine, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (M.C.S.); (Y.P.); (J.H.C.)
| | - Joon Ha Park
- Department of Anatomy, College of Korean Medicine, Dongguk University, Gyeongju 38066, Korea;
| | - Choong-Hyun Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheonan 31116, Korea;
| | - Soo Young Choi
- Department of Biomedical Science and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chuncheon 24252, Korea;
| | - Moo-Ho Won
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (B.K.); (H.S.); (J.-C.L.)
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