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Ying Z, Yin M, Zhu Z, Shang Z, Pei Y, Liu J, Liu Q. Iron Stress Affects the Growth and Differentiation of Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2493. [PMID: 38473741 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2024] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Iron is an indispensable nutrient for the survival of Toxoplasma gondii; however, excessive amounts can lead to toxicity. The parasite must overcome the host's "nutritional immunity" barrier and compete with the host for iron. Since T. gondii can infect most nucleated cells, it encounters increased iron stress during parasitism. This study assessed the impact of iron stress, encompassing both iron depletion and iron accumulation, on the growth of T. gondii. Iron accumulation disrupted the redox balance of T. gondii while enhancing the parasite's ability to adhere in high-iron environments. Conversely, iron depletion promoted the differentiation of tachyzoites into bradyzoites. Proteomic analysis further revealed proteins affected by iron depletion and identified the involvement of phosphotyrosyl phosphatase activator proteins in bradyzoite formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhu Ying
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Meng Yin
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Zifu Zhu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Zheng Shang
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yanqun Pei
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jing Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Qun Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
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Gruden Š, Poklar Ulrih N. Diverse Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Activities of Lactoferrins, Lactoferricins, and Other Lactoferrin-Derived Peptides. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222011264. [PMID: 34681923 PMCID: PMC8541349 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222011264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactoferrins are an iron-binding glycoprotein that have important protective roles in the mammalian body through their numerous functions, which include antimicrobial, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant activities. Among these, their antimicrobial activity has been the most studied, although the mechanism behind antimicrobial activities remains to be elucidated. Thirty years ago, the first lactoferrin-derived peptide was isolated and showed higher antimicrobial activity than the native lactoferrin lactoferricin. Since then, numerous studies have investigated the antimicrobial potencies of lactoferrins, lactoferricins, and other lactoferrin-derived peptides to better understand their antimicrobial activities at the molecular level. This review defines the current antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and antiparasitic activities of lactoferrins, lactoferricins, and lactoferrin-derived peptides. The primary focus is on their different mechanisms of activity against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. The role of their structure, amino-acid composition, conformation, charge, hydrophobicity, and other factors that affect their mechanisms of antimicrobial activity are also reviewed.
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Oliveira MC, Coutinho LB, Almeida MPO, Briceño MP, Araujo ECB, Silva NM. The Availability of Iron Is Involved in the Murine Experimental Toxoplasma gondii Infection Outcome. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8040560. [PMID: 32295126 PMCID: PMC7232304 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8040560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron is an important constituent of our environment, being necessary for both mammalian and pathogenic protozoa survival. Iron-containing proteins exert a wide range of biological processes such as biodegradation and biosynthesis, as well as immune function, fetal development, and physical and mental well-being. This work aimed to investigate the effect of iron deprivation in Toxoplasma gondii infection outcome. C57BL/6 mice were orally infected with T. gondii and treated with an iron chelator, deferoxamine, or supplemented with iron (ferrous sulfate), and the parasitism as well as immunological and histological parameters were analyzed. It was observed that the infection increased iron accumulation in the organs, as well as systemically, and deferoxamine treatment diminished the iron content in serum samples and intestine. The deferoxamine treatment decreased the parasitism and inflammatory alterations in the small intestine and lung. Additionally, they partially preserved the Paneth cells and decreased the intestinal dysbiosis. The ferrous sulfate supplementation, despite not significantly increasing the parasite load in the organs, increased the inflammatory alterations in the liver. Together, our results suggest that iron chelation, which is commonly used to treat iron overload, could be a promising medicine to control T. gondii proliferation, mainly in the small intestine, and consequently inflammation caused by infection.
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Almeida MPO, Ferro EAV, Briceño MPP, Oliveira MC, Barbosa BF, Silva NM. Susceptibility of human villous (BeWo) and extravillous (HTR-8/SVneo) trophoblast cells to Toxoplasma gondii infection is modulated by intracellular iron availability. Parasitol Res 2019; 118:1559-1572. [PMID: 30796516 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06257-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Congenital toxoplasmosis is a serious health problem that can lead to miscarriage. HTR-8/SVneo is a first trimester extravillous trophoblast, while BeWo is a choriocarcinoma with properties of villous trophoblast cells. In the placenta, iron is taken up from Fe-transferrin through the transferrin receptor being the ion an important nutrient during pregnancy and also for Toxoplasma gondii proliferation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of iron in T. gondii proliferation in BeWo and HTR-8/SVneo cells and in human chorionic villous explants. The cells were infected with T. gondii, iron supplemented or deprived by holo-transferrin or deferoxamine, respectively, and parasite proliferation and genes related to iron balance were analyzed. It was verified that the addition of holo-transferrin increased, and DFO decreased the parasite multiplication in both trophoblastic cells, however, in a more expressive manner in HTR-8/SVneo, indicating that the parasite depends on iron storage in trophoblastic cells for its growth. Also, tachyzoites pretread with DFO proliferate normally in trophoblastic cells demonstrating that DFO itself does not interfere with parasite proliferation. Additionally, T. gondii infection induced enhancement in transferrin receptor mRNA expression levels in trophoblastic cells, and the expression was higher in HTR-8/SVneo compared with BeWo. Finally, DFO-treatment was able to reduce the parasite replication in villous explants. Thus, the iron supplementation can be a double-edged sword; in one hand, it could improve the supplement of an essential ion to embryo/fetus development, and on the other hand, could improve the parasite proliferation enhancing the risk of congenital infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Paulo Oliveira Almeida
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Av. Pará 1720, Uberlândia, MG, CEP 38400-902, Brazil
| | - Eloisa Amália Vieira Ferro
- Laboratory of Immunophysiology of Reproduction, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Av. Pará 1720, Uberlândia, MG, CEP 38400-902, Brazil
| | - Marisol Patricia Pallete Briceño
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Av. Pará 1720, Uberlândia, MG, CEP 38400-902, Brazil
| | - Mário Cézar Oliveira
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Av. Pará 1720, Uberlândia, MG, CEP 38400-902, Brazil
| | - Bellisa Freitas Barbosa
- Laboratory of Immunophysiology of Reproduction, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Av. Pará 1720, Uberlândia, MG, CEP 38400-902, Brazil
| | - Neide Maria Silva
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Av. Pará 1720, Uberlândia, MG, CEP 38400-902, Brazil.
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Leal-Sena JA, Dos Santos JL, Dos Santos TAR, de Andrade EM, de Oliveira Mendes TA, Santana JO, Mineo TWP, Mineo JR, da Cunha-Júnior JP, Pirovani CP. Toxoplasma gondii antigen SAG2A differentially modulates IL-1β expression in resistant and susceptible murine peritoneal cells. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:2235-2249. [PMID: 29353306 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-8759-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Revised: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The cell surface of Toxoplasma gondii is covered by antigens (SAGs) from the SRS family anchored by glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) and includes antigens from the SAG2 family. Among these, the SAG2A surface antigen shows great potential in activating humoral responses and has been used in characterizing the acute phase of infection and in the serological diagnosis of toxoplasmosis. In this study, we aimed to evaluate rSAG2A-induced proteins in BALB/c and C57BL/c mice macrophages and to evaluate the phenotypic polarization induced in the process. We treated the peritoneal macrophages from mouse strains that were resistant or susceptible to T. gondii with rSAG2A to analyze their proteomic profile by mass spectrometry and systems biology. We also examined the gene expression of these cells by RT-qPCR using the phenotypic markers of M1 and M2 macrophages. Differences were observed in the expression of proteins involved in the inflammatory process in both resistant and susceptible cells, and macrophages were preferentially induced to obtain a pro-inflammatory immune response (M1) via the overexpression of IL-1β in mice susceptible to this parasite. These data suggest that the SAG2A antigen induces phenotypic and classical activation of macrophages in both resistant and susceptible strains of mice during the acute phase of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jane Lima Dos Santos
- Biothecnology and Genetic Center, State University of Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil.
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Dzitko K, Dziadek B, Gatkowska J, Długońska H. Toxoplasma gondii binds sheep prolactin. Exp Parasitol 2013; 134:216-9. [PMID: 23499881 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2013.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2012] [Revised: 10/05/2012] [Accepted: 02/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Taking into account the literature reports on the involvement of prolactin (PRL) in the regulation of immunity against Toxoplasma gondii, we decided to check whether this parasite has the ability to bind the lactotrophic hormone. We examined T. gondii binding of sheep fluoresceine- and biotine-labeled prolactin isolated from pituitary (shPRL). In this work we announced for the first time that shPRL was bound to live tachyzoites of RH (type I) and ME49 (type II) strains. Furthermore, by use of competitive inhibition analysis, we confirmed that this binding was specific for both tested T. gondii strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Dzitko
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Łódź, ul. Banacha 12/16, 90-237 Łódź, Poland.
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Ortíz-Estrada G, Luna-Castro S, Piña-Vázquez C, Samaniego-Barrón L, León-Sicairos N, Serrano-Luna J, de la Garza M. Iron-saturated lactoferrin and pathogenic protozoa: could this protein be an iron source for their parasitic style of life? Future Microbiol 2012; 7:149-64. [PMID: 22191452 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.11.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron is an essential nutrient for the survival of pathogens inside a host. As a general strategy against microbes, mammals have evolved complex iron-withholding systems for efficiently decreasing the iron accessible to invaders. Pathogens that inhabit the respiratory, intestinal and genitourinary tracts encounter an iron-deficient environment on the mucosal surface, where ferric iron is chelated by lactoferrin, an extracellular glycoprotein of the innate immune system. However, parasitic protozoa have developed several mechanisms to obtain iron from host holo-lactoferrin. Tritrichomonas fetus, Trichomonas vaginalis, Toxoplasma gondii and Entamoeba histolytica express lactoferrin-binding proteins and use holo-lactoferrin as an iron source for growth in vitro; in some species, these binding proteins are immunogenic and, therefore, may serve as potential vaccine targets. Another mechanism to acquire lactoferrin iron has been reported in Leishmania spp. promastigotes, which use a surface reductase to recognize and reduce ferric iron to the accessible ferrous form. Cysteine proteases that cleave lactoferrin have been reported in E. histolytica. This review summarizes the available information on how parasites uptake and use the iron from lactoferrin to survive in hostile host environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Ortíz-Estrada
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Apdo. 14-740, México DF 07000, México
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Dziadek B, Dziadek J, Dlugonska H. Identification of Toxoplasma gondii proteins binding human lactoferrin: A new aspect of rhoptry proteins function. Exp Parasitol 2007; 115:277-82. [PMID: 17069806 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2006.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2006] [Revised: 09/08/2006] [Accepted: 09/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we report on the isolation, purification and identification of two Toxoplasma gondii membrane proteins binding human lactoferrin. Parasite membrane proteins were isolated using the commercial Mem-PER Eukaryotic Membrane Protein Extraction System. After purification by lactoferrin affinity chromatography, three protein bands were detected with the molecular mass of 74, 63 and 58 kDa, two of which (63 and 58 kDa) specifically bound biotin labeled human lactoferrin as examined by competitive inhibition. Further identification of latter proteins by ESI/MS/MS amino acid sequencing technique revealed those proteins as Toxoplasma ROP4 (band 63 kDa) and ROP2 (band 58 kDa) antigens known to be involved in many mechanisms essential for the parasite pathogenicity, including host lactoferrin acquisition as determined in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bozena Dziadek
- Department of Immunoparasitology, University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland.
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