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Hida M, Eto S, Wada C, Kitagawa K, Imaoka M, Nakamura M, Imai R, Kubo T, Inoue T, Sakai K, Orui J, Tazaki F, Takeda M, Hasegawa A, Yamasaka K, Nakao H. Development of Hallux Valgus Classification Using Digital Foot Images with Machine Learning. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:life13051146. [PMID: 37240791 DOI: 10.3390/life13051146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Hallux valgus, a frequently seen foot deformity, requires early detection to prevent it from becoming more severe. It is a medical economic problem, so a means of quickly distinguishing it would be helpful. We designed and investigated the accuracy of an early version of a tool for screening hallux valgus using machine learning. The tool would ascertain whether patients had hallux valgus by analyzing pictures of their feet. In this study, 507 images of feet were used for machine learning. Image preprocessing was conducted using the comparatively simple pattern A (rescaling, angle adjustment, and trimming) and slightly more complicated pattern B (same, plus vertical flip, binary formatting, and edge emphasis). This study used the VGG16 convolutional neural network. Pattern B machine learning was more accurate than pattern A. In our early model, Pattern A achieved 0.62 for accuracy, 0.56 for precision, 0.94 for recall, and 0.71 for F1 score. As for Pattern B, the scores were 0.79, 0.77, 0.96, and 0.86, respectively. Machine learning was sufficiently accurate to distinguish foot images between feet with hallux valgus and normal feet. With further refinement, this tool could be used for the easy screening of hallux valgus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsumasa Hida
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
- Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Shinji Eto
- Graduate School of Life Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Hibikino 2-4, Wakamatsu-ku, Kitakyushu 808-0135, Japan
| | - Chikamune Wada
- Graduate School of Life Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Hibikino 2-4, Wakamatsu-ku, Kitakyushu 808-0135, Japan
| | - Kodai Kitagawa
- Department of Industrial Systems Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Hachinohe College, 16-1 Uwanotai, Tamonoki, Hachinohe 039-1192, Japan
| | - Masakazu Imaoka
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
- Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Misa Nakamura
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
- Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Ryota Imai
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
- Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Takanari Kubo
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Takao Inoue
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Keiko Sakai
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Junya Orui
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
- Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Fumie Tazaki
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Takeda
- Department of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
- Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University, Mizuma 158, Kaizuka 597-0104, Japan
| | - Ayuna Hasegawa
- Department of Rehabilitation, Takata-Kamitani Hospital, Kamiyamaguchi 4-26-14, Yamaguchi, Nishinomiya 651-1421, Japan
| | - Kota Yamasaka
- Department of Rehabilitation, Takata-Kamitani Hospital, Kamiyamaguchi 4-26-14, Yamaguchi, Nishinomiya 651-1421, Japan
| | - Hidetoshi Nakao
- Department of Physical Therapy, Josai International University, 1 Gumyo, Togane 283-8555, Japan
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Crooks SA, Lewis TL, Ray R, Gordon DJ. Symmetry of bilateral hallux valgus deformity: A radiographic study. Clin Anat 2021; 35:414-420. [PMID: 34390035 DOI: 10.1002/ca.23772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Hallux valgus (HV) is a common anatomical deformity leading to pain and difficulty with footwear and mobility. Bilateral HV deformity is much more common than unilateral although it remains unclear whether the severity of deformity is equal between feet. The objective was to investigate the severity and symmetry of HV in patients with bilateral symptomatic deformity presenting for surgery. Weight-bearing radiographs of patients presenting with symptomatic bilateral HV were reviewed. The hallux valgus angle (HVA) and intermetatarsal angle (IMA) were measured and classified as mild, moderate, or severe. Left-to-right comparison was undertaken to assess whether the degree of deformity was similar for each foot. The relationship between age, HVA, and IMA was also assessed. Between July 2014 and June 2020, 322 ft (161 patients with bilateral deformity) underwent corrective HV surgery. Of those, 6.8%, 64.6%, and 28.4% were classified as mild, moderate, and severe, respectively on the left side, and on the right 6.2%, 67.7%, and 26.1% were classified as mild, moderate, and severe respectively. There was no statistically significant difference between feet for either IMA (p = 0.06) or HVA (p = 0.85). There was a moderate correlation (R = 0.41, p ≤ 0.001) between HVA and IMA. There was only a 'weak' or 'very weak' correlation between age and HVA or IMA. Patients presenting for surgery with symptomatic bilateral HV have symmetrical moderate radiographic deformity at the time they present for consideration of surgical intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie A Crooks
- King's Foot and Ankle Unit, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Thomas L Lewis
- King's Foot and Ankle Unit, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Robbie Ray
- King's Foot and Ankle Unit, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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