Steam deacidification of palm oil

Blood lipid profiles, fatty acid deposition and expression of hepatic lipid and lipoprotein metabolism genes in laying hens fed palm oils, palm kernel oil, and soybean oil

The palm oil, palm kernel oil and soybean oil have unique and distinctive fatty acid chain length and saturation profiles, and how they affect lipid peroxidation, fatty acid intake and metabolism is worth exploring in poultry. This study elucidated the influence the dietary oils on lipid peroxidation, blood lipid profiles, fatty acid deposition of liver, serum and yolk and the expression of liver genes related to lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in laying hens. About 150 Hisex brown laying hens were fed diets containing crude palm oil (CPO), red palm oil (RPO), refined palm oil (RBD), palm kernel oil (PKO) or soybean oil (SBO) for 16 weeks. Serum, liver and yolk lipid peroxidation were not different between dietary oils. The PKO increased liver, serum and yolk medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA). There was no difference in liver saturated fatty acids (SFA). The CPO and RPO reduced serum SFA, but the PKO increased yolk SFA. The SBO increased polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in liver serum and yolk. No difference in liver elaidic acid (C18:1-trans), but SBO lowered elaidic acid (C18:1-trans) in serum. Higher very-low density lipoprotein (VLDL) in CPO than RPO and SBO and greater serum lipase in CPO, RBD and PKO than SBO. There was no difference in sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP-II) between oils. Apolipoprotein VLDL-II (APOVLDL2) was upregulated in palm oils and apolipoprotein B-100 (APOB) in RBD. Downregulation in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-α), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) and low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) was observed in palm oils and PKO. In conclusion, different dietary oils greatly influence several aspects of fatty acid metabolism, deposition and lipoprotein profiles but have no influence on reducing lipid peroxidation.

Analysis of bentonite performance on the quality of refined crude palm oil's color, free fatty acid and carotene: the effect of bentonite concentration and contact time

The quality of crude palm oil (CPO) must be maintained since it plays an important role in fulfilling the domestic and global needs (food and non-food). The quality of CPO is determined by the color, Free Fatty Acid (FFA) and carotene. This study was aimed at examining the effect of bentonite concentration (1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0%) and contact time (15, 30, 45 and 60 min) on the quality of crude palm oil. The refining processes of CPO through degumming, bleaching and distillation were carried out before the analysis on color, FFA and carotene was done. The results showed that the effect of bentonite concentration (1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0%) experienced the highest percentage in reduction at 3.0% (color 88.7%, FFA 2.99% and carotene 56.37%). Meanwhile, the effect of contact time (15, 30, 45 and 60 min) experienced the highest percentage in reduction at 60 min (color 89.58%, FFA 2.38%, carotene 61.32%). The reduction in the CPO's color, FFA and carotene found in this study indicates that bentonite concentration and contact time are proven to be effective methods for CPO refinery based on the standard set by Malaysian Palm Oil Refiners Association. This study also showed that the removal efficiency and adsorption capacity of FFA and carotene were also affected by contact time and bentonite concentration.

Organic, conventional and sustainable palm oil (RSPO): Formation of 2- and 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters and influence of aqueous washing on their reduction

Palm oil is a type of vegetable oil which presents a variety of applications including food, energy, and international trading. However, one of the major concerns associated with palm oil uses as a food ingredient is the significant amount of processing contaminants, such as monochloropropanediol esters (MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) which are formed during the refining process. These contaminants may pose a health risk to consumers due to their carcinogenicity. Thus, mitigation strategies have been studied to reduce these substances in palm oil. In this study, we investigated the effect of the application of an aqueous washing step, as a mitigation strategy, prior to deodorization in three different palm oil cultivation systems: organic, conventional and certified palm oil by the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). In addition, we evaluated the quality parameters after the application of the washing step. For the organic, conventional and RSPO palm oil samples, the aqueous washing step reduced approximately 41%, 34% and 36% of the 3-MCPDE, respectively. The levels of 2-MCPDE for the organic, conventional and RSPO palm oil presented a reduction of 55%, 41% and 32%, respectively. The GE levels are considerably low for all the deodorized palm oils, and presented no statistically significant difference (p > 0.05). Besides, the quality parameters such as free fatty acids, color, and OSI met the recommended limits. Therefore, the aqueous washing could be used as a supplementary strategy to reduce these contaminants from palm oil.

Addition of palm olein to lard-supplemented diet indicates myocardial dysfunction and augments oxidative stress by authophagy-lysosome pathway in rats

This study evaluated a prolonged effect of palm oil addition to lard-supplemented diet (PLD) on the oxidative status, lysosomal enzyme activities, markers of hepatotoxicity and basic lipid profile in female rats. Female Sprague-Dawley rats received PLD (10% of total fat: 7.5% from palm oil and 2.5% from lard), and the control group received lard-supplemented diet (2.5% fat) from 28 days of age for 14 weeks. Histopathological evaluation of the liver from animals fed the PLD showed slight steatosis and signs of mild chronic inflammation. Reduction of extramedullary hematopoiesis and an increased ratio of red/white pulp were observed in the spleen. PLD induced oxidative stress (evaluated in the liver, heart, spleen, muscle and kidney) evidenced by an increase in conjugated dienes and malondialdehyde in all tissues except the muscle; protein carbonyl derivatives were increased as well. The changes in the antioxidant enzyme activities in the evaluated tissues were ambiguous except for the prominent increase in the heart. Lysosomal enzyme activities showed a tendency to increase in the heart and kidney and to decrease in the muscle and spleen. The De Ritis ratio, which is a biomarker of hepatotoxicity, was higher in the heart from animals fed the PLD. The palm oil addition to the lard-supplemented diet-induced prominent oxidative stress, particularly in myocardial tissue with involvement of the authophagy-lysosome pathway.

Effects of deodorization temperature and time on the formation of 3-MCPD, 2-MCPD, and glycidyl esters and physicochemical changes of palm oil

This study verified the formation profile of esters of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPDE), 2-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (2-MCPDE), and glycidol (GE), and evaluated the physicochemical changes (free-fatty acid, acylglycerols, and colour) that occurred during the deodorization of palm oil in different conditions of time (30, 60, 90, and 120 min) and temperature (210, 230, 250, and 270 °C). Levels of 3-MCPD and 2-MCPD esters ranged from 1.91 to 2.70 mg/kg and 0.68 to 1.44 mg/kg, respectively, and were formed at the mildest tested condition (210 °C, 30 min). No correlation was observed between these contaminants and physicochemical changes. GE levels varied from 0.12 to 8.51 mg/kg and showed correlation with color and diacylglycerol content. While the temperature had little influence on the formation of esters of 3-MCPD and 2-MCPD, the content of GE considerably raised above 250 °C.

Deacidification of Palm Oil Using Betaine Monohydrate-Carboxylic Acid Deep Eutectic Solvents: Combined Extraction and Simple Solvent Recovery

Steam stripping is commonly used to remove free fatty acids from crude palm oil. An alternative deacidification method, solvent extraction performed at a much lower temperature, would preserve the natural antioxidants in the refined palm oil. In this work, palmitic acid was extracted using betaine monohydrate-propionic acid and betaine monohydrate-acetic acid deep eutectic solvents (DESs). The effect of temperature (40 °C to 80 °C), mass ratio of palm oil to solvent (2:1 to 1:2), and palmitic acid content in the palm oil feed (2% to 8% mass) on the distribution coefficient values of palmitic acid (0.44–0.93) was investigated. For the first time, a facile recovery of DESs could be accomplished by a cooling process where up to 98% of the palmitic acid separates as solid. A solvent extraction process for palm oil deacidification, employing a DES with a distribution coefficient value much higher than unity, will provide advantages over the steam stripping process.

Portable NIR Spectrometer for Prediction of Palm Oil Acidity

Palm oil is widely used in the food industry, and its quality is associated with the free fatty acids (FFA) content. Determination of FFA in oil is time-consuming, requires chemicals and generates residues. There is a trend of applying process analytical technologies (PAT) for fast and nondestructive determination of oil parameters. Portable near-infrared (NIR) spectrometers are cheaper than bench top equipment, and have been used for several tasks in the food processing industry, as it provides fast and reliable data for inline measurements. This study investigated the use of NIR spectra using a portable equipment, combined with both unsupervised and supervised multivariate analyses for identification of palm oil samples with different levels of FFA. Soft independent modeling of class analogy , k-Nearest Neighbors, and linear discriminant analysis models were able to correctly identify 100% of the studied samples with selected wavelengths from NIR spectra. Calibration models were performed for acidity prediction, achieving R² = 0.97, with root mean square error of prediction = 4.37 for partial least squares model using most relevant wavelengths. These results demonstrate the feasibility of applying a low-cost portable NIR spectrophotometer to predict quality parameters of palm oil. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This work presents results that show the feasibility of using a low-cost portable near-infrared spectrophotometer for the classification of raw palm oil samples according to free fatty acids contents. Regression models are presented as a fast and nondestructive alternative to classify samples for acidity, which is an important quality parameter and that directly affects the market value of crude palm oil.

Impact of Crude Oil Quality on the Refining Conditions and Composition of Nutraceuticals in Refined Palm Oil

Palm oil is the major vegetable oil used worldwide due to its unique properties. The effect of crude palm oil acidity on the final free fatty acids (FFA) content, neutral oil loss (NOL), and nutraceutical compounds, such as carotenes, total tocols (tocopherols and tocotrienols), squalene, and phytosterols was investigated. A central composite design was employed to study the influence of the refining conditions: temperature (200 to 260 °C), steam percentage (0.5% to 3.5%), and initial FFA content (2.2% to 6.0%) on the quality of the refined product. The results revealed that initial palm oil acidity is a statistically important parameter to obtain commercially acceptable values for final FFA content. The increase of temperature presented the most important effect on the reduction of all nutraceutical compounds. The highest tocopherols (88%), phytosterols (98%), and squalene retention (84%) was obtained when applying the mildest temperature (200 °C). From the experimental results, 3 equations were generated enabling the prediction of the free fatty acids content, the tocols content, and the losses of neutral oil. Therefore, this work contributes to the understanding and optimization of the process for the production of palm oil with high nutraceutical quality and low free fatty acid contents.

Simultaneous extraction of oil and antioxidant compounds from oil palm fruit (Elaeis guineensis) by an aqueous enzymatic process

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) fruit was treated with enzymes to facilitate simultaneous recovery of oil and bioactive compounds. Tannase from Paecilomyces variotii, cellulase and pectinase were evaluated for their influence on oil recovery and antioxidant capacity (DPPH), oxidative stability (Rancimat), fatty acid profile, total phenols, total carotenoids and tocols of the oil. Maximum oil recovery (90-93% total oil) was obtained with central composite design using 4% of enzyme preparation (w/w) as 80 U of tannase, 240 U of cellulase and 178 U of pectinase, pH 4, ratio of solution to pulp of 2:1 and 30 min of incubation at 50 °C. Tannase improved the phenolic compounds extraction by 51% and pectinase plus cellulase improved carotene extraction by 153%. Samples treated with tannase showed a 27% and 53% higher antioxidant capacity for the lipophilic and hydrophilic fractions.