Investigation on possible allergenicity of 19 different commercial enzymes used in the food industry

Bacillus subtilis ZB423: 90-Day repeat dose oral (gavage) toxicity study in Wistar rats

The novel genetically modified probiotic Bacillus subtilis ZB423 was assessed in a 90-day repeated-dose oral toxicity study adhering to Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guidelines. Spray-dried spores at a concentration of 1.1E12 CFU/g were administered at doses of 130, 260, and 519 mg/kg body weight/day correlating to 1.43 × 1011, 2.86 × 1011, and 5.71 × 1011 CFU/kg/day, respectively, by oral gavage to Wistar rats for a period of 90 consecutive days. Results showed no toxicologically relevant findings for B. subtilis ZB423 from measured parameters. The no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of B. subtilis ZB423 is 519 mg/kg body weight/day corresponding to 5.71 × 1011 CFU/kg/day for lyophilized B. subtilis ZB423 spores under the test conditions employed.

Enhancing the functionality of plant-based Yogurt: Integration of lycopene through dual-stage fermentation of soymilk

Well-defined compositional assemblies of plant-based yogurt are of fast-growing awareness for world population concerning environmental sustainability, economic burdens and health risks. Soybean is an attractive candidate for plant yogurt, suffering from poor flavor, limited nutrition, and undesired allergens to offer healthy-functional segments. Herein, we deciphered a novel lycopene-soy yogurt by efficient two-stage fermentation of engineered B. subtilis and LAB. The fortified sogurt was ensured with redundant lycopene of 22.67 ± 2.95 mg/g DCW by engineered B. subtilis and enriched soy isoflavone from synergistic effects of engineered B. subtilis and LAB, possessing strong antioxidant capacity for upgrading functionality. Moreover, the desired pH, accelerated protein hydrolysis, enhanced amino acid availability, and expected sensory attributes cooperatively conferred lycopene-soy yogurt as healthy functional food. High potential is firstly ascribed to sequential dual culture of engineered B. subtilis and LAB in lycopene-soy yogurt, in which flavorful, hypoallergenic and antioxidative ingredients enabled functionalities for plant-based yogurt.

Trends in ingredients added to infant formula: FDA's experiences in the GRAS notification program

While human milk is considered the optimal source of nutrition for infants for the first six and twelve months of age, with continued benefit of breastfeeding with complementary foods, a safe alternative, nutritionally adequate to support infant growth and development, is necessary. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) establishes the requirements necessary to demonstrate the safety of infant formula within the framework of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition/Office of Food Additive Safety evaluates the safety and lawfulness of individual ingredients used in infant formula, whereas the Office of Nutrition and Food Labeling oversees the safety of infant formula. Most infant formula ingredients are either from sources with history of safe consumption by infants or are like components in human milk. Information demonstrating the regulatory status of all ingredients is required in submissions for new infant formulas, and ingredient manufacturers often use the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) Notification program to establish ingredient regulatory status. We provide an overview of ingredients used in infant formula evaluated through the GRAS Notification program to highlight trends and discuss the data and information used to reach these GRAS conclusions.

Enzymes and sensitization via skin exposure: A critical analysis

Some proteins, including enzymes, can induce allergic sensitization of various types, including allergic sensitization of the respiratory tract. There is now an increased understanding of the role that the skin plays in the development of IgE-mediated allergy and this prompts the question whether topical exposure to enzymes used widely in consumer cleaning products could result in allergic sensitization. Here, the evidence that proteins can interact with the skin immune system and the way they do so is reviewed, together with a consideration of the experience gained over decades of the use of enzymes in laundry and cleaning products. The conclusion drawn is that although transcutaneous sensitization to proteins can occur (typically through compromised skin) resulting in IgE antibody-mediated allergy, in practice such skin contact with enzymes used in laundry and cleaning products does not appear to pose a significant risk of allergic disease. Further, the evidence summarized in this publication support the view that proteins do not pose a risk of allergic contact dermatitis.

Role of commercial enzymes in wine production: a critical review of recent research

Purified enzymes of microbial origin are applied in the beverage industry since decades because of their ability to enhance products and processes with minimal side effects and low costs. Commercial enzymes are widely used during different wine making steps providing a broad range of effects, such as to maximise juice yield, improve aroma compounds, flavour enhancement, colour extraction in red wines, and contribute in the removal of dissolved unwanted colloidal particles and pectin substances during wine stabilization and filtration. This review presents a study of recent advances in the application of commercial enzymes in the wine making of red, white and sweet wines that have been made in essentially the last 13 years (2005-2018). Literature has been critically analysed to discover general rules about previous research. Special attention is paid to the safety of enzyme application due to allergic issues. Future research efforts should be concentrated on application of immobilizated enzymes and the use of microorganisms with potential enzymatic side activities during wine production.

Lyophilized B. subtilis ZB183 Spores: 90-Day Repeat Dose Oral (Gavage) Toxicity Study in Wistar Rats

A 90-day repeated-dose oral toxicological evaluation was conducted according to GLP and OECD guidelines on lyophilized spores of the novel genetically modified strain B. subtilis ZB183. Lyophilized spores at doses of 10⁹, 10¹⁰, and 10¹¹ CFU/kg body weight/day were administered by oral gavage to Wistar rats for a period of 90 consecutive days. B. subtilis ZB183 had no effects on clinical signs, mortality, ophthalmological examinations, functional observational battery, body weights, body weight gains and food consumption in both sexes. There were no test item-related changes observed in haematology, coagulation, urinalysis, thyroid hormonal analysis, terminal fasting body weights, organ weights, gross pathology and histopathology. A minimal increase in the plasma albumin level was observed at 10¹⁰ and 10¹¹ CFU/kg/day doses without an increase in total protein in males or females and was considered a nonadverse effect. The “No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL)” is defined at the highest dose of 10¹¹ CFU/kg body weight/day for lyophilized B. subtilis ZB183 Spores under the test conditions employed.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme endo-1,4-β-xylanase from a genetically modified Aspergillus oryzae (strain NZYM-FA)

The food enzyme is an endo-1,4-β-xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) produced with a genetically modified strain of Aspergillus oryzae by Novozymes A/S. The genetic modifications do not give rise to safety concerns. The food enzyme is free from viable cells of the production organism and recombinant DNA. This xylanase is intended to be used in baking and cereal-based processes. Based on the proposed maximum use levels, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated to be up to 0.027 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day in European populations. Genotoxicity tests did not raise a safety concern. Subchronic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rats. In this study, effects were seen in the control group on reproductive parameters (particularly the seminiferous epithelium atrophy in the testes) at incidences that far exceeded the background range. Consequently, a combined repeated dose toxicity study with the reproduction/developmental toxicity screening test, including haematological parameters and the immunology cohort, was conducted. The Panel identified a no observed adverse effect level at the highest dose tested of 1,101.3 mg TOS/kg bw per day. When compared with the dietary exposure, resulted in a sufficiently high margin of exposure (at least 40,000). Similarity of the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens was searched and no match was found. The Panel considered that under the intended conditions of use the risk for allergic sensitisation and elicitation reactions by dietary exposure cannot be excluded, but the likelihood is considered low. Based on the data provided, the Panel concluded that this food enzyme does not raise safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme α-amylase from a genetically modified Bacillus licheniformis (strain NZYM-AV)

The food enzyme is an α‐amylase (4‐α‐d‐glucan glucanohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.1) produced with the genetically modified Bacillus licheniformis strain NZYM‐AV by Novozymes A/S. The genetic modifications do not give rise to safety concerns. The food enzyme does not contain the production microorganism or its DNA; therefore, there is no safety concern for the environment. The α‐amylase is intended to be used in starch processing for the production of glucose syrups and distilled alcohol production. Residual amounts of total organic solids (TOS) are removed by distillation and by the purification steps applied during the production of glucose syrups (by > 99%). Consequently, dietary exposure was not calculated. Genotoxicity tests did not raise a safety concern. The subchronic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90‐day oral toxicity study in rodents. The Panel derived a no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) at the highest dose level of 796 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day. The allergenicity was evaluated by comparing the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens and one match was found. The Panel considered that, under the intended condition of use, the risk of allergic sensitisation and elicitation reactions by dietary exposure cannot be excluded, but the likelihood is considered low. Based on the microbial source, the genetic modifications, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data, the removal of TOS during the intended food production processes and the toxicological and genotoxicity studies, the Panel concluded that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme glucose oxidase from a genetically modified Aspergillus oryzae (strain NZYM-KP)

The food enzyme is a glucose oxidase (beta‐d‐glucose:oxygen 1‐oxidoreductase; EC 1.1.3.4) produced with a genetically modified strain of Aspergillus oryzae strain NZYM‐KP by Novozymes A/S. The genetic modifications do not give rise to safety concerns. The food enzyme does not contain the production organism or DNA; therefore, there is no safety concern for the environment. The glucose oxidase is intended to be used in baking processes. Based on the maximum use levels recommended and individual consumption data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database, dietary exposure to the food enzyme–total organic solids (TOS) was estimated to be up to 0.156 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day in European populations. The food enzyme did not induce gene mutations in bacteria or chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes. The subchronic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90‐day oral toxicity study in rodents. A no‐observed‐adverse‐effect level was derived (341 mg TOS/kg bw per day), which compared with the estimated dietary exposure results in a sufficiently high margin of exposure. The allergenicity was evaluated by comparing the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens and one match with a fungal contact allergen was found. The Panel considered that, under the intended condition of use, the risk of allergic sensitisation and elicitation reactions by dietary exposure cannot be excluded, but the likelihood is considered low. Based on the microbial source, the genetic modifications, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data, the estimated dietary exposure and the findings in the toxicological studies, the Panel concluded that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme alpha-amylase from a genetically modified Bacillus licheniformis (strain NZYM-AN)

The food enzyme is an α‐amylase (4‐α‐d‐glucan glucanohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.1) produced with a genetically modified Bacillus licheniformis strain NZYM‐AN by Novozymes A/S. The genetic modifications do not give rise to safety concerns. The food enzyme does not contain the production organism or recombinant DNA; therefore, there is no safety concern for the environment. The α‐amylase is intended to be used in starch processing for the production of glucose syrups and distilled alcohol production. Residual amounts of total organic solids (TOS) are removed by distillation and by the purification steps applied during the production of glucose syrups (by > 99%). Consequently, dietary exposure was not calculated. Genotoxicity tests with the food enzyme did not raise a safety concern. The amino acid sequence of the food enzyme did not match to those of known allergens. The Panel considered that under the intended condition of use, the risk of allergic sensitisation and elicitation reactions upon dietary exposure to this food enzyme cannot be excluded, but the likelihood is considered low. Based on the microbial source, the genetic modifications, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data, the removal of TOS during the intended food production processes and the findings in the genotoxicity studies, the Panel concluded that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Safety evaluation of food enzyme xylanase from a genetically modified Bacillus subtilis (strain LMG S-27588)

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is an endo-1,4-β-xylanase (4-β-d-xylan xylanohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.8) produced from the genetically modified Bacillus subtilis strain LMG S-27588 by the company Puratos N. V. The production strain was not detected in the food enzyme. The endo-1,4-β-xylanase is intended to be used in baking processes. Based on the maximum use levels recommended and individual consumption data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated to be up to 0.325 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day in European populations. Genotoxicity tests with the food enzyme indicated no genotoxic concern. The systemic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents. A no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) was derived (443 mg TOS/kg bw per day), which, compared with the dietary exposure, results in a sufficiently high margin of exposure. The allergenicity was evaluated by comparing the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens; no match was found. The Panel considered that there are no indications for food allergic reactions to this endo-1,4-β-xylanase by dietary exposure. Based on the genetic modifications, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data, the dietary exposure assessment, the findings in the toxicological studies and allergenicity assessment, the Panel concludes that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use. The Panel noted that recombinant DNA was present in all batches of the food enzyme tested.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme aqualysin 1 from a genetically modified Bacillus subtilis (strain LMGS 25520)

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is aqualysin 1 (EC 3.4.21.111), produced from the genetically modified strain Bacillus subtilis LMGS 25520 by Puratos NV. The production strain was not detected in the food enzyme. Aqualysin 1 is intended to be used in baking processes. Based on the maximum use level recommended and individual consumption data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated to be up to 2.13 mg TOS/kg body weight per day in European populations. Genotoxicity tests indicated no genotoxic concerns. The allergenicity was evaluated by searching for similarity of the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens and 23 matches were found (20 respiratory and 3 dermal allergens). However, the Panel considered that there are no indications for food allergic reactions to the food enzyme. The genetic modifications performed, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data, the allergenicity and the genotoxicity assessment did not raise safety concerns. The Panel considered the margin of exposure (MOE) calculated from the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) determined from the repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study and the estimated dietary exposure as insufficient to conclude that there is no safety concern for this food enzyme under the intended conditions of use. The Panel noted that recombinant DNA was present in all batches of the food enzyme tested.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme maltogenic amylase from a genetically modified Bacillus subtilis (strain NZYM-SM)

The food enzyme considered is a maltogenic amylase (glucan 1,4-α-maltohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.133) produced with the genetically modified Bacillus subtilis strain NZYM-SM by Novozymes A/S. The food enzyme contains neither the production organism nor recombinant DNA. The maltogenic amylase is intended for use in baking processes and starch processing for glucose syrups production. Based on the maximum use levels recommended for the food processes and individual consumption data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-Total Organic Solids (TOS) was estimated to be up to 0.168 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day in European populations. The food enzyme did not induce gene mutations in bacteria or chromosomal aberrations in human lymphocytes. The subchronic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents. A no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) was derived (320 mg TOS/kg bw per day), which, compared with the dietary exposure, results in a sufficiently high margin of exposure. The allergenicity was evaluated by searching for similarity of the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens. Three matches to occupational respiratory allergens were found, however, the Panel considered that there are no indications for food allergic reactions to the food enzyme. Based on the genetic modifications performed, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data provided, the dietary exposure assessment, the findings in the toxicological studies and allergenicity assessment, the Panel concluded that the food enzyme maltogenic amylase from Bacillus subtilis strain NZYM-SM does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Safety evaluation of food enzyme glucan 1,4-α-maltohydrolase produced with a genetically modified Bacillus subtilis (strain MAM)

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is a glucan 1,4-α-maltohydrolase (maltogenic α-amylase; EC 3.2.1.133) produced with the genetically modified Bacillus subtilis strain MAM by the company DSM Food Specialties B. V. The food enzyme contains neither the production microorganism nor recombinant DNA; therefore, no environmental risk assessment is required. However, the Panel emphasises that this conclusion only covers the food enzyme recovered via filter press. The glucan 1,4-α-maltohydrolase is intended for use in baking processes. Based on the maximum use levels recommended and individual consumption data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated to be up to 0.175 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day in European populations. The systemic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents. A no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) was derived (986 mg TOS/kg bw per day for both males and females), which, compared with the dietary exposure, results in a sufficiently high margin of exposure. The allergenicity was evaluated by comparing the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens; one match was found. However, the Panel considered that there are no indications for food allergic reactions to this glucan 1,4-α-maltohydrolase by dietary exposure. No safety concerns were identified in relation to the genetic modifications, the manufacturing process, the compositional data provided, as well as the exposure, allergenicity and systemic toxicity assessments. However, owing to the incompleteness of the genotoxicity data, the Panel is not able to conclude on the safety of the food enzyme.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme endo-1,4-β-xylanase from a genetically modified Aspergillus niger (strain XEA)

The food enzyme is an endo-1,4-β-xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) produced with a genetically modified strain of Aspergillus niger (strain XEA), by DSM Food Specialities B.V. The food enzyme is intended to be used in baking and brewing processes. Based on maximum use levels recommended for the food processes and individual consumption data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated to be up to 0.310 mg TOS/kg body weight per day in European populations. Genotoxicity tests with the food enzyme did not indicate a genotoxic concern. A repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents, carried out with this endo-1,4-β-xylanase, showed no concern with respect to systemic toxicity. The allergenicity was evaluated by searching for similarity of the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens; no match was found. The Panel considers that there are no indications for allergic sensitisation and elicitation reactions by dietary exposure to the food enzyme endo-1,4-β-xylanase. Based on the microbial source, the genetic modifications performed, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data provided, the dietary exposure assessment, the findings in the toxicological studies and the allergenicity assessment, the Panel concludes that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme xylanase from a genetically modified Bacillus subtilis strain TD160(229)

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is an endo-1,4-β-xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) produced with a genetically modified Bacillus subtilis strain from Puratos N.V. (Belgium). The genetic modifications do not raise safety concerns. The food enzyme contains neither the production organism nor recombinant DNA. The endo-1,4-β-xylanase is intended to be used in baking processes. Based on the maximum use levels recommended for the baking processes, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated on the basis of individual data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. This exposure estimate is up to 0.008 mg TOS/kg body weight per day in European populations. The food enzyme did not induce gene mutations in bacteria nor clastogenic activity in human lymphocytes. Therefore, there is no concern with respect to genotoxicity. The subchronic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents. A no observed adverse effect level was derived, which, compared with the dietary exposure, results in a sufficiently high margin of exposure. The allergenicity was evaluated by searching for similarity of the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens; no matches were found. The Panel considered that there are no indications for food allergic reactions to this xylanase. Based on the microbial source, genetic modifications performed, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data provided, the findings in the toxicological studies and allergenicity assessment, this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme endo-1,4-β-xylanase from genetically modified Aspergillus niger strain XYL

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is an endo-1,4-β-xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) produced with a genetically modified strain of Aspergillus niger. The genetic modifications do not give rise to safety concerns. The food enzyme contains neither the production organism nor recombinant DNA. The endo-1,4-β-xylanase is intended to be used in baking processes. Based on the maximum use levels recommended for the respective food process, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated on the basis of individual data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. This exposure estimate is below 0.013 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day in European populations. No safety concerns were identified in relation to the genetic modifications performed, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data provided, allergenicity and exposure assessments. The allergenicity was evaluated by comparing the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens; no match was found. The Panel considered that the likelihood of allergic reactions to dietary intake of endo-1,4-β-xylanase is low and, therefore, does not give rise to safety concerns. The systemic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents. A no observed adverse effect level was derived (4,095 and 4,457 mg TOS/kg bw per day for males and females, respectively), which, compared with the dietary exposure, results in a sufficiently high margin of exposure. However, the genotoxicity data were incomplete. Due to the absence of the recommended combination of microbial strains used in the Ames test (i.e. lack of Salmonella Typhimurium TA102 and Escherichia coli WP2), no conclusions can be drawn on potential DNA oxidising or cross-linking mechanisms giving rise to gene mutations. Consequently, no final conclusions can be drawn on genotoxicity.

Safety of proline-specific oligopeptidase as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 258/97

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on proline-specific oligopeptidase (Tolerase® G) as a novel food ingredient submitted pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council, taking into account the comments and objections of a scientific nature raised by Member States. The novel food is an enzyme preparation of prolyl-oligopeptidase produced with a genetically modified Aspergillus niger self clone strain. The target population is the general adult population. The results from a bacterial reverse mutation test and of an in vitro chromosome aberration test did not indicate genotoxicity. The Panel considers that the reported effects observed in a 90-day rat study are treatment-related effects and can be attributed to the higher energy consumption by these animals. Taking into account the intended maximum use level for Tolerase® G, its daily consumption would correspond to 2,746 mg TOS/person or to 39.2 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day, when considering a default body weight of 70 kg for an adult person. The margin between this value and the dose in the rats, which caused effects attributable to the excess energy intake, is approximately 45. Noting this margin, the Panel considers that it is unlikely that such effects would occur in human at the intended use levels. The Panel concludes that the NF, Tolerase® G, is safe for the intended use at the intended use level.

Impact of food processing and detoxification treatments on mycotoxin contamination

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites commonly occurring in food, which pose a health risk to the consumer. Maximum levels for major mycotoxins allowed in food have been established worldwide. Good agricultural practices, plant disease management, and adequate storage conditions limit mycotoxin levels in the food chain yet do not eliminate mycotoxins completely. Food processing can further reduce mycotoxin levels by physical removal and decontamination by chemical or enzymatic transformation of mycotoxins into less toxic products. Physical removal of mycotoxins is very efficient: manual sorting of grains, nuts, and fruits by farmers as well as automatic sorting by the industry significantly lowers the mean mycotoxin content. Further processing such as milling, steeping, and extrusion can also reduce mycotoxin content. Mycotoxins can be detoxified chemically by reacting with food components and technical aids; these reactions are facilitated by high temperature and alkaline or acidic conditions. Detoxification of mycotoxins can also be achieved enzymatically. Some enzymes able to transform mycotoxins naturally occur in food commodities or are produced during fermentation but more efficient detoxification can be achieved by deliberate introduction of purified enzymes. We recommend integrating evaluation of processing technologies for their impact on mycotoxins into risk management. Processing steps proven to mitigate mycotoxin contamination should be used whenever necessary. Development of detoxification technologies for high-risk commodities should be a priority for research. While physical techniques currently offer the most efficient post-harvest reduction of mycotoxin content in food, biotechnology possesses the largest potential for future developments.

A broader view: microbial enzymes and their relevance in industries, medicine, and beyond

Enzymes are the large biomolecules that are required for the numerous chemical interconversions that sustain life. They accelerate all the metabolic processes in the body and carry out a specific task. Enzymes are highly efficient, which can increase reaction rates by 100 million to 10 billion times faster than any normal chemical reaction. Due to development in recombinant technology and protein engineering, enzymes have evolved as an important molecule that has been widely used in different industrial and therapeutical purposes. Microbial enzymes are currently acquiring much attention with rapid development of enzyme technology. Microbial enzymes are preferred due to their economic feasibility, high yields, consistency, ease of product modification and optimization, regular supply due to absence of seasonal fluctuations, rapid growth of microbes on inexpensive media, stability, and greater catalytic activity. Microbial enzymes play a major role in the diagnosis, treatment, biochemical investigation, and monitoring of various dreaded diseases. Amylase and lipase are two very important enzymes that have been vastly studied and have great importance in different industries and therapeutic industry. In this review, an approach has been made to highlight the importance of different enzymes with special emphasis on amylase and lipase in the different industrial and medical fields.

Assessing the risk of type 1 allergy to enzymes present in laundry and cleaning products: evidence from the clinical data

Microbial enzymes have been used in laundry detergent products for several decades. These enzymes have also long been known to have the potential to give rise to occupational type 1 allergic responses. A few cases of allergy among consumers using dusty enzyme detergents were reported in the early 1970s. Encapsulation of the enzymes along with other formula changes were made to ensure that consumer exposure levels were sufficiently low that the likelihood of either the induction of IgE antibody (sensitization) or the elicitation of clinical symptoms be highly improbable. Understanding the consumer exposure to enzymes which are used in laundry and cleaning products is a key step to the risk management process. Validation of the risk assessment conclusions and the risk management process only comes with practical experience and evidence from the marketplace. In the present work, clinical data from a range of sources collected over the past 40 years have been analysed. These include data from peer reviewed literature and enzyme specific IgE antibody test results in detergent manufacturers' employees and from clinical study subjects. In total, enzyme specific IgE antibody data were available on 15,765 individuals. There were 37 individuals with IgE antibody. The majority of these cases were from the 1970s where 23 of 4687 subjects (0.49%) were IgE positive and 15 of the 23 were reported to have symptoms of allergy. The remaining 14 cases were identified post-1977 for a prevalence of 0.126% (14/11,078). No symptoms were reported and no relationship to exposure to laundry and cleaning products was found. There was a significant difference between the pre- and post-1977 cohorts in that the higher rates of sensitization with symptoms were associated with higher exposure to enzyme. The clinical testing revealed that the prevalence of enzyme specific IgE in the population is very rare (0.126% since 1977). This demonstrates that exposure to these strong respiratory allergens via use of laundry and cleaning products does not lead to the development of sensitization and disease. These data confirm that the risk to consumers has been properly assessed and managed and support the concept that thresholds of exposure exist for respiratory allergy. Expansion of enzyme use into new consumer product categories should follow completion of robust risk assessments in order to continue ensuring the safe use of enzymes among consumers.