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Reddy N, Lynch B, Gujral J, Karnik K. Alternatives to animal testing in toxicity testing: Current status and future perspectives in food safety assessments. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 179:113944. [PMID: 37453475 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
The development of alternative methods to animal testing has gained great momentum since Russel and Burch introduced the "3Rs" concept of Reduction, Refinement, and Replacement of animals in safety testing in 1959. Several alternatives to animal testing have since been introduced, including but not limited to in vitro and in chemico test systems, in silico models, and computational models (e.g., [quantitative] structural activity relationship models, high-throughput screens, organ-on-chip models, and genomics or bioinformatics) to predict chemical toxicity. Furthermore, several agencies have developed robust integrated testing strategies to determine chemical toxicity. The cosmetics sector is pioneering the adoption of alternative methodologies for safety evaluations, and other sectors are aiming to completely abandon animal testing by 2035. However, beyond the use of in vitro genetic testing, agencies regulating the food industry have been slow to implement alternative methodologies into safety evaluations compared with other sectors; setting health-based guidance values for food ingredients requires data from systemic toxicity, and to date, no standalone validated alternative models to assess systemic toxicity exist. The abovementioned models show promise for assessing systemic toxicity with further research. In this paper, we review the current alternatives and their applicability and limitations in food safety evaluations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navya Reddy
- Intertek Health Sciences Inc., 2233 Argentia Rd, Suite 201, Mississauga, ON, L5N 2X7, Canada
| | - Barry Lynch
- Intertek Health Sciences Inc., 2233 Argentia Rd, Suite 201, Mississauga, ON, L5N 2X7, Canada.
| | - Jaspreet Gujral
- Tate & Lyle, 5450 Prairie Stone Pkwy, Hoffman Estates, IL, 60192, USA
| | - Kavita Karnik
- Tate & Lyle PLC, 5 Marble Arch, London, W1H 7EJ, United Kingdom
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2
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Bergmann AJ, Breitenbach M, Muñoz C, Simon E, McCombie G, Biedermann M, Schönborn A, Vermeirssen EL. Towards detecting genotoxic chemicals in food packaging at thresholds of toxicological concern using bioassays with high-performance thin-layer chromatography. Food Packag Shelf Life 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2023.101052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
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3
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FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Allspice, anise, fennel-derived and related flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 174:113643. [PMID: 36739890 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The FEMA Expert Panel program to re-evaluate the safety of natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavoring ingredients in food has resulted in the publication of an updated constituent-based procedure as well as publications on the safety evaluation of many botanical-derived NFCs. This publication, ninth in the series and related to the ninth publication, describes the affirmation of the generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status for NFCs with propenylhydroxybenzene and allylalkoxybenzene constituents under their conditions of intended use as flavoring ingredients added to food. The Panel's procedure applies the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept and evaluates relevant data on absorption, metabolism, genotoxic potential and toxicology for the NFCs themselves and their respective constituent congeneric groups. For NFCs containing allylalkoxybenzene constituent(s) with suspected genotoxic potential, the estimated intake of the individual constituent is compared to the TTC for compounds with structural alerts for genotoxicity and if exceeded, a margin of exposure is calculated using BMDL10 values derived from benchmark dose analyses using Bayesian model averaging, as presented in the tenth article of the series. Safety evaluations for NFCs derived from allspice, anise seed, star anise, sweet fennel seed and pimento leaves were conducted and their GRAS status was affirmed for use as flavoring ingredients. The scope of the safety evaluation contained herein does not include added use in dietary supplements or any products other than food.
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4
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Davidsen JM, Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Rosol TJ, Harman CL, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of derivatives of basil, nutmeg, parsley, tarragon and related allylalkoxybenzene-containing natural flavor complexes. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 175:113646. [PMID: 36804339 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a program for the re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavoring ingredients in food. In this publication, tenth in the series, NFCs containing a high percentage of at least one naturally occurring allylalkoxybenzene constituent with a suspected concern for genotoxicity and/or carcinogenicity are evaluated. In a related paper, ninth in the series, NFCs containing anethole and/or eugenol and relatively low percentages of these allylalkoxybenzenes are evaluated. The Panel applies the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept and evaluates relevant toxicology data on the NFCs and their respective constituent congeneric groups. For NFCs containing allylalkoxybenzene constituent(s), the estimated intake of the constituent is compared to the TTC for compounds with structural alerts for genotoxicity and when exceeded, a margin of exposure (MOE) is calculated. BMDL10 values are derived from benchmark dose analyses using Bayesian model averaging for safrole, estragole and methyl eugenol using EPA's BMDS software version 3.2. BMDL10 values for myristicin, elemicin and parsley apiole were estimated by read-across using relative potency factors. Margins of safety for each constituent congeneric group and MOEs for each allylalkoxybenzene constituent for each NFC were determined that indicate no safety concern. The scope of the safety evaluation contained herein does not include added use in dietary supplements or any products other than food. Ten NFCs, derived from basil, estragon (tarragon), mace, nutmeg, parsley and Canadian snakeroot were determined or affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C, 20036, USA
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Havlik-Wall Professor of Oncology, Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired), Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building, 2231 6th St, S.E, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 6708 WE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C, 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Scientific Secretary to the FEMA Expert Panel, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C, 20036, USA.
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5
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Marin-Kuan M, Pagnotti V, Patin A, Moulin J, Latado H, Varela J, Hammel YA, Gude T, Moor H, Billinton N, Tate M, Behnisch PA, Besselink H, Burleigh-Flayer H, Koster S, Szabo DT. Interlaboratory Study to Evaluate a Testing Protocol for the Safety of Food Packaging Coatings. TOXICS 2023; 11:156. [PMID: 36851031 PMCID: PMC9962921 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11020156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
According to European regulations, migration from food packaging must be safe. However, currently, there is no consensus on how to evaluate its safety, especially for non-intentionally added substances (NIAS). The intensive and laborious approach, involving identification and then quantification of all migrating substances followed by a toxicological evaluation, is not practical or feasible. In alignment with the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) and the European Union (EU) guidelines on packaging materials, efforts are focused on combining data from analytics, bioassays and in silico toxicology approaches for the risk assessment of packaging materials. Advancement of non-targeted screening approaches using both analytical methods and in vitro bioassays is key. A protocol was developed for the chemical and biological screening of migrants from coated metal packaging materials. This protocol includes guidance on sample preparation, migrant simulation, chemical analysis using liquid chromatography (LC-MS) and validated bioassays covering endocrine activity, genotoxicity and metabolism-related targets. An inter-laboratory study was set-up to evaluate the consistency in biological activity and analytical results generated between three independent laboratories applying the developed protocol and guidance. Coated packaging metal panels were used in this case study. In general, the inter-laboratory chemical analysis and bioassay results displayed acceptable consistency between laboratories, but technical differences led to different data interpretations (e.g., cytotoxicity, cell passages, chemical analysis). The study observations with the greatest impact on the quality of the data and ultimately resulting in discrepancies in the results are given and suggestions for improvement of the protocol are made (e.g., sample preparation, chemical analysis approaches). Finally, there was agreement on the need for an aligned protocol to be utilized by qualified laboratories for chemical and biological analyses, following best practices and guidance for packaging safety assessment of intentionally added substances (IAS) and NIAS to avoid inconsistency in data and the final interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maricel Marin-Kuan
- Société des Produits Nestlé SA-Nestlé Research, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Amaury Patin
- Société des Produits Nestlé SA-Nestlé Research, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Julie Moulin
- Société des Produits Nestlé SA-Nestlé Research, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Helia Latado
- Société des Produits Nestlé SA-Nestlé Research, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jesús Varela
- Société des Produits Nestlé SA-Nestlé Research, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Yves-Alexis Hammel
- Société des Produits Nestlé SA-Nestlé Research, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Gude
- SQTS Swiss Quality Testing Services, 8953 Dietikon, Switzerland
| | - Heidi Moor
- SQTS Swiss Quality Testing Services, 8953 Dietikon, Switzerland
| | | | - Matthew Tate
- Gentronix Limited, Alderley Park, Cheshire SK10 4TG, UK
| | | | - Harrie Besselink
- BioDetection Systems B.V. (BDS), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Sander Koster
- Société des Produits Nestlé SA-Nestlé Research, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Kojima H, Nakada T, Yagami A, Todo H, Nishimura J, Yagi M, Yamamoto K, Sugiyama M, Ikarashi Y, Sakaguchi H, Yamaguchi M, Hirota M, Aizawa S, Nakagawa S, Hagino S, Hatao M. A step-by-step approach for assessing acute oral toxicity without animal testing for additives of quasi-drugs and cosmetic ingredients. Curr Res Toxicol 2022; 4:100100. [PMID: 36619289 PMCID: PMC9816657 DOI: 10.1016/j.crtox.2022.100100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal testing of cosmetic ingredients and products has been banned in the European Union since 2013. However, in Japan, the application of new quasi-drugs requires the generation of data on acute oral toxicity through animal testing. A weight of evidence approach for assessing oral toxicity was challenged. This approach used a combination of safety data, including a neutral red uptake cytotoxicity assay using BALB/c3T3 cells (3T3-NRU cytotoxicity assay), which can assess the acute oral toxicity of quasi-drugs or cosmetic ingredients. We conclude that the step-by-step approach can be used to assess test substances that cause low acute oral toxicity, such as the median lethal dose (LD 50) > 2000 mg/kg, thereby avoiding animal testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Kojima
- National Institute of Health Sciences, Japan,Corresponding author at: 3-25-26 Tonoma-chi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki 210-9501, Japan.
| | | | - Akiko Yagami
- Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Japan
| | | | | | - Mio Yagi
- Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency, Japan
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7
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Divari S, Cuccato M, Fanelli A, Cannizzo FT. Development of a droplet digital PCR assay to detect illicit glucocorticoid administration in bovine. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0271613. [PMID: 35839236 PMCID: PMC9286227 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids are often used illegally in food-producing animals for the growth promotion of livestock animals. In accordance to official chemical methods for glucocorticoid detection, an animal is declared as non-compliant when a residue is identified in the sample. Neverthless, growth promoting molecules can often escape identification due to their rapid elimination or due to the use of non-detectable new generation drugs. Therefore, an indirect screening method able to detect the biological effect of long-term administration of low doses of dexamethasone and prednisolone on livestock has been developed to support official methods. As already described, FKBP5 (FKBP prolyl isomerase 5) expression in bovine thymus is regulated by glucocorticoids, and this specific regulation can be exploited in an indirect screening assay. In the present study, male veal calves and young bulls were considered in three different trials in which estradiol, dexamethasone, and prednisolone were administered alone or in combination with Revalor-200 subcutaneous pellets. Thoracic thymus was sampled from all animals and molecular analysis was performed. A duplex droplet digital PCR assay with EvaGreen® was employed to detect the target gene expression using absolute quantification. The developed droplet digital PCR assay was precise, showing intra- and inter-assay mean coefficient of variation values of about 6.16% and 3.17%, respectively. It was also highly specific (100%) with Youden’s index of 76.92% and 53.57% applied to veal calves and young bulls, respectively. The lowest detection limit in which the target gene expression level was kept constant, was 0.05 ng/μl of cDNA with 1 copies/μL and 0.5 copies/μL for target and reference gene, respectively. This study establishes the basis for using a digital PCR-based assay as an efficient test to identify animals illegally treated with glucocorticoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Divari
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Turin, Grugliasco (TO), Italy
- * E-mail:
| | - Matteo Cuccato
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Turin, Grugliasco (TO), Italy
| | - Antonella Fanelli
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Turin, Grugliasco (TO), Italy
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8
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Nishijo T, Api AM, Gerberick GF, Miyazawa M, Na M, Sakaguchi H. Implementation of a dermal sensitization threshold (DST) concept for risk assessment: structure-based DST and in vitro data-based DST. Crit Rev Toxicol 2022; 52:51-65. [PMID: 35416118 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2022.2033162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Skin sensitization resulting in allergic contact dermatitis represents an important toxicological endpoint as part of safety assessments. When available substance-specific sensitization data are inadequate, the dermal sensitization threshold (DST) concept has been proposed to set a skin exposure threshold to provide no appreciable risk of skin sensitization. Structure-based DSTs, which include non-reactive, reactive, and high potency category (HPC) DSTs, can be applied to substances with an identified chemical structures. An in vitro data-based "mixture DST" can be applied to mixtures based on data from in vitro test methods, such as KeratinoSens™ and the human Cell Line Activation Test. The purpose of this review article is to discuss the practical use of DSTs for conducting sound sensitization risk assessments to assure the safety of consumer products. To this end, several improvements are discussed in this review. For application of structure-based DSTs, an overall structural classification workflow was developed to exclude the possibility that "HPC but non-reactive" chemicals are misclassified as "non-reactive", because such chemicals should be classified as HPC chemicals considering that HPC rules have been based on the chemical structure of high potency sensitizers. Besides that, an extended application of the mixture DST principle to mixtures that either is cytotoxic or evaluated as positive was proposed. On a final note, we also developed workflows that integrate structure-based and in vitro-based mixture DST. The proposed workflows enable the application of the appropriate DST, which serves as a point of departure in the quantitative sensitization risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taku Nishijo
- Safety Science Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Anne Marie Api
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, USA
| | | | - Masaaki Miyazawa
- Safety Science Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Mihwa Na
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, USA
| | - Hitoshi Sakaguchi
- Safety Science Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, Tochigi, Japan
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9
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Eisenbrand G, Cohen SM, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Rosol TJ, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Eucalyptus oil and other cyclic ether-containing flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 155:112357. [PMID: 34217737 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a program for the re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients. This publication, the sixth in the series, will summarize the re-evaluation of eight NFCs whose constituent profiles are characterized by significant amounts of eucalyptol and/or other cyclic ethers. This re-evaluation was based on a procedure first published in 2005 and subsequently updated in 2018 that evaluates the safety of naturally occurring mixtures for their intended use as flavoring ingredients. The procedure relies on a complete chemical characterization of the NFC intended for commerce and the organization of its chemical constituents into well-defined congeneric groups. The safety of the NFC is evaluated using the well-established and conservative threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept in addition to data on absorption, metabolism and toxicology of the constituents of the congeneric groups and the NFC under evaluation. Eight NFCs derived from the Eucalyptus, Melaleuca, Origanum, Laurus, Rosmarinus and Salvia genera were affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired), Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building, 2231 6th St. S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, NW Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, NW Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Scientific Secretary to the FEMA Expert Panel, 1101 17th Street, NW Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA.
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10
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Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Rosol TJ, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, Lu V, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Origanum oil, thyme oil and related phenol derivative-containing flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 155:112378. [PMID: 34217738 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients, mostly consisting of a variety of essential oils and botanical extracts. This publication, seventh in the series, re-evaluates NFCs with constituent profiles dominated by phenolic derivatives including carvacrol, thymol and related compounds using a constituent-based procedure first published in 2005 and updated in 2018. The procedure is based on the chemical characterization of each NFC as intended for commerce and the estimated intake of the constituent congeneric groups. The procedure applies the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept and evaluates relevant data on absorption, metabolism, genotoxic potential and toxicology of the constituent congeneric groups and the NFC under evaluation. Herein, the FEMA Expert Panel affirmed the generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status of seven phenolic derivative-based NFCs, Origanum Oil (Extractive) (FEMA 2828), Savory Summer Oil (FEMA 3013), Savory Summer Oleoresin (FEMA 3014), Savory Winter Oil (FEMA 3016), Savory Winter Oleoresin (FEMA 3017), Thyme Oil (FEMA 3064) and Thyme White Oil (FEMA 3065) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel M Cohen
- Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired), Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building, 2231 6th St. S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708, WE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Vivian Lu
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Scientific Secretary to the FEMA Expert Panel, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA.
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11
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Kato LS, Conte-Junior CA. Safety of Plastic Food Packaging: The Challenges about Non-Intentionally Added Substances (NIAS) Discovery, Identification and Risk Assessment. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:2077. [PMID: 34202594 PMCID: PMC8271870 DOI: 10.3390/polym13132077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Several food contact materials (FCMs) contain non-intentionally added substances (NIAS), and most of the substances that migrate from plastic food packaging are unknown. This review aimed to situate the main challenges involving unknown NIAS in plastic food packaging in terms of identification, migration tests, prediction, sample preparation, determination methods and risk assessment trials. Most studies have identified NIAS in plastic materials as polyurethane adhesives (PU), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester coatings, polypropylene materials (PP), multilayers materials, plastic films, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), recycled materials, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). Degradation products are almost the primary source of NIAS in plastic FCMs, most from antioxidants as Irganox 1010 and Irgafos 168, following by oligomers and side reaction products. The NIAS assessment in plastics FCMs is usually made by migration tests under worst-case conditions using food simulants. For predicted NIAS, targeted analytical methods are applied using GC-MS based methods for volatile NIAS and GC-MS and LC-MS based methods for semi- and non-volatile NIAS; non-targeted methods to analyze unknown NIAS in plastic FCMs are applied using GC and LC techniques combined with QTOF mass spectrometry (HRMS). In terms of NIAS risk assessment and prioritization, the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept is the most applied tool for risk assessment. Bioassays with sensitive analytical techniques seem to be an efficient method to identify NIAS and their hazard to human exposure; the combination of genotoxicity testing with analytical chemistry could allow the Cramer class III TTC application to prioritize unknown NIAS. The scientific justification for implementing a molecular weight-based cut-off (<1000 Da) in the risk assessment of FCMs should be reevaluated. Although official guides and opinions are being issued on the subject, the whole chain's alignment is needed, and more specific legislation on the steps to follow to get along with NIAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian Seiko Kato
- Center for Food Analysis (NAL), Technological Development Support Laboratory (LADETEC), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-598, Brazil;
- Laboratory of Advanced Analysis in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, (LAABBM), Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Carlos A. Conte-Junior
- Center for Food Analysis (NAL), Technological Development Support Laboratory (LADETEC), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-598, Brazil;
- Laboratory of Advanced Analysis in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, (LAABBM), Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Food Science (PPGCAL), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Veterinary Hygiene (PPGHV), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Fluminense Federal University (UFF), Vital Brazil Filho, Niterói 24220-000, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Sanitary Surveillance (PPGVS), National Institute of Health Quality Control (INCQS), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Chemistry (PGQu), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Brazil
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12
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Baderna D, Faoro R, Selvestrel G, Troise A, Luciani D, Andres S, Benfenati E. Defining the Human-Biota Thresholds of Toxicological Concern for Organic Chemicals in Freshwater: The Proposed Strategy of the LIFE VERMEER Project Using VEGA Tools. Molecules 2021; 26:1928. [PMID: 33808128 PMCID: PMC8037015 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26071928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Several tons of chemicals are released every year into the environment and it is essential to assess the risk of adverse effects on human health and ecosystems. Risk assessment is expensive and time-consuming and only partial information is available for many compounds. A consolidated approach to overcome this limitation is the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) for assessment of the potential health impact and, more recently, eco-TTCs for the ecological aspect. The aim is to allow a safe assessment of substances with poor toxicological characterization. Only limited attempts have been made to integrate the human and ecological risk assessment procedures in a "One Health" perspective. We are proposing a strategy to define the Human-Biota TTCs (HB-TTCs) as concentrations of organic chemicals in freshwater preserving both humans and ecological receptors at the same time. Two sets of thresholds were derived: general HB-TTCs as preliminary screening levels for compounds with no eco- and toxicological information, and compound-specific HB-TTCs for chemicals with known hazard assessment, in terms of Predicted No effect Concentration (PNEC) values for freshwater ecosystems and acceptable doses for human health. The proposed strategy is based on freely available public data and tools to characterize and group chemicals according to their toxicological profiles. Five generic HB-TTCs were defined, based on the ecotoxicological profiles reflected by the Verhaar classes, and compound-specific thresholds for more than 400 organic chemicals with complete eco- and toxicological profiles. To complete the strategy, the use of in silico models is proposed to predict the required toxicological properties and suitable models already available on the VEGAHUB platform are listed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Baderna
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milano, Italy; (R.F.); (G.S.); (D.L.)
| | - Roberta Faoro
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milano, Italy; (R.F.); (G.S.); (D.L.)
| | - Gianluca Selvestrel
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milano, Italy; (R.F.); (G.S.); (D.L.)
| | - Adrien Troise
- INERIS Institut National de l’Environnement Industriel et des Risques, Rue Jacques Taffanel, 60550 Verneuil-en-Halatt, France; (A.T.); (S.A.)
| | - Davide Luciani
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milano, Italy; (R.F.); (G.S.); (D.L.)
| | - Sandrine Andres
- INERIS Institut National de l’Environnement Industriel et des Risques, Rue Jacques Taffanel, 60550 Verneuil-en-Halatt, France; (A.T.); (S.A.)
| | - Emilio Benfenati
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milano, Italy; (R.F.); (G.S.); (D.L.)
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13
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FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Lavender, Guaiac Coriander-derived and related flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111584. [PMID: 32682832 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a program for the re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients. This publication, fifth in the series, evaluates the safety of NFCs containing linalool and/or other characteristic mono- and sesquiterpenoid tertiary alcohols and esters using the safety evaluation procedure published by the FEMA Expert Panel in 2005 and updated in 2018. The procedure relies on a complete chemical characterization of the NFC intended for commerce and organization of the chemical constituents of each NFC into well-defined congeneric groups. The safety of each NFC is evaluated using the well-established and conservative threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept in addition to data on absorption, metabolism and toxicology of both the constituent congeneric groups and the NFCs. Sixteen NFCs, derived from the Lavandula, Aniba, Elettaria, Daucus, Salvia, Coriandrum, Ribes, Guaiacum/Bulnesia, Citrus, Pogostemon, Melaleuca and Michelia genera, were affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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14
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Mahony C, Bowtell P, Huber M, Kosemund K, Pfuhler S, Zhu T, Barlow S, McMillan DA. Threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) for botanicals - Concentration data analysis of potentially genotoxic constituents to substantiate and extend the TTC approach to botanicals. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 138:111182. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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15
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Pinter E, Rainer B, Czerny T, Riegel E, Schilter B, Marin-Kuan M, Tacker M. Evaluation of the Suitability of Mammalian In Vitro Assays to Assess the Genotoxic Potential of Food Contact Materials. Foods 2020; 9:foods9020237. [PMID: 32098342 PMCID: PMC7074469 DOI: 10.3390/foods9020237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Non-targeted screening of food contact materials (FCM) for non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) reveals a great number of unknown and unidentified substances present at low concentrations. In the absence of toxicological data, the application of the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) or of EU Regulation 10/2011 requires methods able to fulfill safety threshold criteria. In this review, mammalian in vitro genotoxicity assays are analyzed for their ability to detect DNA-damaging substances at limits of biological detection (LOBD) corresponding to the appropriate safety thresholds. Results: The ability of the assays to detect genotoxic effects varies greatly between substance classes. Especially for direct-acting mutagens, the assays lacked the ability to detect most DNA reactive substances below the threshold of 10 ppb, making them unsuitable to pick up potential genotoxicants present in FCM migrates. However, suitability for the detection of chromosomal damage or investigation of other modes of action makes them a complementary tool as part of a standard test battery aimed at giving additional information to ensure safety. Conclusion: improvements are necessary to comply with regulatory thresholds to consider mammalian genotoxicity in vitro assays to assess FCM safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Pinter
- Department of Applied Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien, Helmut-Qualtinger-Gasse 2, 1030 Vienna, Austria
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +43-1-606-6877-3584
| | - Bernhard Rainer
- Department of Applied Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien, Helmut-Qualtinger-Gasse 2, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Czerny
- Department of Applied Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien, Helmut-Qualtinger-Gasse 2, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Riegel
- Department of Applied Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien, Helmut-Qualtinger-Gasse 2, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Benoît Schilter
- Nestlé Research Center, Route du Jorat 57, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Manfred Tacker
- Department of Applied Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien, Helmut-Qualtinger-Gasse 2, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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16
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Rietjens IM, Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rosol TJ, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, Murray IJ, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Cinnamomum and Myroxylon-derived flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 135:110949. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.110949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 11/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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17
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Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Bastaki M, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, McGowen MM, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Mint, buchu, dill and caraway derived flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 135:110870. [PMID: 31604112 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.110870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients. NFC flavor materials include a variety of essential oils and botanical extracts. The re-evaluation of NFCs is conducted based on a constituent-based procedure outlined in 2005 and updated in 2018 that evaluates the safety of NFCs for their intended use as flavor ingredients. This procedure is applied in the re-evaluation of the generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status of NFCs with constituent profiles that are dominated by alicyclic ketones such as menthone and carvone, secondary alcohols such as menthol and carveol, and related compounds. The FEMA Expert Panel affirmed the GRAS status of Peppermint Oil (FEMA 2848), Spearmint Oil (FEMA 3032), Spearmint Extract (FEMA 3031), Cornmint Oil (FEMA 4219), Erospicata Oil (FEMA 4777), Curly Mint Oil (FEMA 4778), Pennyroyal Oil (FEMA 2839), Buchu Leaves Oil (FEMA 2169), Caraway Oil (FEMA 2238) and Dill Oil (FEMA 2383) and determined FEMA GRAS status for Buchu Leaves Extract (FEMA 4923), Peppermint Oil, Terpeneless (FEMA 4924) and Spearmint Oil, Terpeneless (FEMA 4925).
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel M Cohen
- Havlik-Wall Professor of Oncology, Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- Food Chemistry & Toxicology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, and Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, MMC 806, 420 Delaware St., S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Tuinlaan 5, 6703 HE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Maria Bastaki
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Margaret M McGowen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA.
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18
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Schilter B, Burnett K, Eskes C, Geurts L, Jacquet M, Kirchnawy C, Oldring P, Pieper G, Pinter E, Tacker M, Traussnig H, Van Herwijnen P, Boobis A. Value and limitation of in vitro bioassays to support the application of the threshold of toxicological concern to prioritise unidentified chemicals in food contact materials. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2019; 36:1903-1936. [PMID: 31550212 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2019.1664772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Some of the chemicals in materials used for packaging food may leak into the food, resulting in human exposure. These include so-called Non-intentionally Added Substances (NIAS), many of them being unidentified and toxicologically uncharacterized. This raises the question of how to address their safety. An approach consisting of identification and toxicologically testing all of them appears neither feasible nor necessary. Instead, it has been proposed to use the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) Cramer class III to prioritise unknown NIAS on which further safety investigations should focus. Use of the Cramer class III TTC for this purpose would be appropriate if amongst others sufficient evidence were available that the unknown chemicals were not acetylcholinesterase inhibitors or direct DNA-reactive mutagens. While knowledge of the material and analytical chemistry may efficiently address the first concern, the second could not be addressed in this way. An alternative would be use of a bioassay capable of detecting DNA-reactive mutagens at very low levels. No fully satisfactory bioassay was identified. The Ames test appeared the most suitable since it specifically detects DNA-reactive mutagens and the limit of biological detection of highly potent genotoxic carcinogens is low. It is proposed that for a specific migrate, the evidence for absence of mutagenicity based on the Ames test, together with analytical chemistry and information on packaging manufacture could allow application of the Cramer class III TTC to prioritise unknown NIAS. Recommendations, as well as research proposals, have been developed on sample preparation and bioassay improvement with the ultimate aim of improving limits of biological detection of mutagens. Although research is still necessary, the proposed approach should bring significant benefits over the current practices used for safety evaluation of food contact materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Schilter
- Food Safety Research Department, Nestlé Research, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Switzerland
| | | | - Chantra Eskes
- Services & Consultations on Alternative Methods (SeCAM), Magliaso, Switzerland and Swiss 3R Competence Centre (3RCC), Bern, Switzerland
| | - Lucie Geurts
- International Life Sciences Institute Europe, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Mélanie Jacquet
- Danone Food Safety Center, Danone S.A., Danone Food Safety Center, Palaiseau, France
| | - Christian Kirchnawy
- Technical Competence Center, OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Elisabeth Pinter
- Department of Applied Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Manfred Tacker
- Department of Applied Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Alan Boobis
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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19
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FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Citrus-derived flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 124:192-218. [PMID: 30481573 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.11.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavoring ingredients. This publication is the first in a series and summarizes the evaluation of 54 Citrus-derived NFCs using the procedure outlined in Smith et al. (2005) and updated in Cohen et al. (2018) to evaluate the safety of naturally-occurring mixtures for their intended use as flavoring ingredients. The procedure relies on a complete chemical characterization of each NFC intended for commerce and organization of each NFC's chemical constituents into well-defined congeneric groups. The safety of the NFC is evaluated using the well-established and conservative threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept in addition to data on absorption, metabolism and toxicology of members of the congeneric groups and the NFC under evaluation. As a result of the application of the procedure, 54 natural flavor complexes derived from botanicals of the Citrus genus were affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavoring ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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20
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Universal response quantification approach using a Corona Charged Aerosol Detector (CAD) – Application on linear and cyclic oligomers extractable from polycondensate plastics polyesters, polyamides and polyarylsulfones. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1572:187-202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2018.08.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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21
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Hits and misses in research trends to monitor contaminants in foods. Anal Bioanal Chem 2018; 410:5331-5351. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-1195-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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22
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Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IM, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, Taylor SV. Updated procedure for the safety evaluation of natural flavor complexes used as ingredients in food. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 113:171-178. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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23
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A Fast Quantitative Multi-analyte Method for Growth Promoters in Bovine Meat Using Bead-Disruption, 96-well SPE Clean-up and Narrow-Bore UHPLC-MS/MS Analysis. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-018-1164-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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24
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Our unrequited love for natural ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 107:37-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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25
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Bolognesi C, Castoldi AF, Crebelli R, Barthélémy E, Maurici D, Wölfle D, Volk K, Castle L. Genotoxicity testing approaches for the safety assessment of substances used in food contact materials prior to their authorization in the European Union. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2017; 58:361-374. [PMID: 28556235 DOI: 10.1002/em.22094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Food contact materials are all materials and articles intended to come directly or indirectly into contact with food. Before being included in the positive European "Union list" of authorized substances (monomers, other starting substances and additives) for plastic food contact materials, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) must assess their safety "in use". If relevant for risk, the safety of the main impurities, reaction and degradation products originating from the manufacturing process is also evaluated. Information on genotoxicity is always required irrespective of the extent of migration and the resulting human exposure, in view of the theoretical lack of threshold for genotoxic events. The 2008 EFSA approach, requiring the testing of food contact materials in three in vitro mutagenicity tests, though still acceptable, is now superseded by the 2011 EFSA Scientific Committee's recommendation for only two complementary tests including a bacterial gene mutation test and an in vitro micronucleus test, to detect two main genetic endpoints (i.e., gene mutations and chromosome aberrations). Follow-up of in vitro positive results depends on the type of genetic effect and on the substance's systemic availability. In this study, we provide an analysis of the data on genotoxicity testing gathered by EFSA on food contact materials for the period 1992-2015. We also illustrate practical examples of the approaches that EFSA took when evaluating "non standard" food contact chemicals (e.g., polymeric additives, oligomer or other reaction mixtures, and nanosubstances). Additionally, EFSA's experience gained from using non testing methods and/or future possibilities in this area are discussed. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 58:361-374, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Bolognesi
- IRCCS A.O.U. San Martino-IST, Environmental Carcinogenesis Unit, Genova, Italy
- EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel), Parma, Italy
| | - Anna F Castoldi
- Food Ingredients and Packaging (FIP) Unit, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy
| | | | - Eric Barthélémy
- Food Ingredients and Packaging (FIP) Unit, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy
| | - Daniela Maurici
- Scientific Committee and Emerging Risks (SCER) Unit, EFSA, Parma, Italy
| | - Detlef Wölfle
- EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel), Parma, Italy
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Katharina Volk
- Food Ingredients and Packaging (FIP) Unit, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy
| | - Laurence Castle
- EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel), Parma, Italy
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26
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Severin I, Souton E, Dahbi L, Chagnon MC. Use of bioassays to assess hazard of food contact material extracts: State of the art. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 105:429-447. [PMID: 28476634 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.04.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on the use of in vitro bioassays for the hazard assessment of food contact materials (FCM) as a relevant strategy, in complement to analytical methods. FCM may transfer constituents to foods, not always detected by analytical chemistry, resulting in low but measurable human exposures. Testing FCM extracts with bioassays represents the biological response of a combination of substances, able to be released from the finished materials. Furthermore, this approach is particularly useful regarding the current risk assessment challenges with unpredicted/unidentified non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) that can be leached from the FCM in the food. Bioassays applied to assess hazard of different FCM types are described for, to date, the toxicological endpoints able to be expressed at low levels; cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and endocrine disruption potential. The bioassay strengths and relative key points needed to correctly use and improve the performance of bioassays for an additional FCM risk assessment is developed. This review compiles studies showing that combining both chemical and toxicological analyses presents a very promising and pragmatic tool for identifying new undesirable NIAS (not predicted) which can represent a great part of the migrating substances and/or "cocktail effect".
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Severin
- Derttech « Packtox », University of Bourgogne Franche-Comté, INSERM LNC UMR 1231, AgroSupDijon, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Emilie Souton
- Derttech « Packtox », University of Bourgogne Franche-Comté, INSERM LNC UMR 1231, AgroSupDijon, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Laurence Dahbi
- Derttech « Packtox », University of Bourgogne Franche-Comté, INSERM LNC UMR 1231, AgroSupDijon, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Marie Christine Chagnon
- Derttech « Packtox », University of Bourgogne Franche-Comté, INSERM LNC UMR 1231, AgroSupDijon, F-21000 Dijon, France.
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27
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Review of the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) approach and development of new TTC decision tree. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2016.en-1006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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28
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Koster S, Leeman W, Verheij E, Dutman E, van Stee L, Nielsen LM, Ronsmans S, Noteborn H, Krul L. A novel safety assessment strategy applied to non-selective extracts. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 80:163-181. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Revised: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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29
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Papastergiadis A, Fatouh A, Jacxsens L, Lachat C, Shrestha K, Daelman J, Kolsteren P, Van Langenhove H, De Meulenaer B. Exposure assessment of Malondialdehyde, 4-Hydroxy-2-(E)-Nonenal and 4-Hydroxy-2-(E)-Hexenal through specific foods available in Belgium. Food Chem Toxicol 2014; 73:51-8. [PMID: 25035169 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2014.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2014] [Revised: 06/27/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Malondialdehyde (MDA), 4-Hydroxy-2-(E)-Nonenal (HNE) and 4-Hydroxy-2-(E)-Hexenal (HHE) are reactive aldehydes found in foods and are formed due to decomposition of polyunsaturated fatty acid hydroperoxides. In the present study, sixteen food categories were analyzed for the aforementioned aldehydes and in combination with consumption data obtained from a national representative sample of the Belgian population, a quantitative exposure assessment was performed. MDA was detected above the detection limit in 84% of the analyzed samples while HNE and HHE in 63% and 16% of the samples respectively. Consumption of dry nuts, fried snacks, French fries and cured minced meat products were found to contribute the most to the intake of MDA and HNE. Intake of HHE from the foods analyzed was found not to be significant. An evaluation of any potential risk related to the intake of the studied aldehydes through the studied foods was performed by applying the threshold of toxicological concern concept. No risk to human health could be identified related to the consumption of these foods for the vast majority of the consumers, with the only exception of a small proportion (3.8%) of those who consume cured and minced raw meat, that could be at risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonios Papastergiadis
- NutriFOODchem Unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality (Partner in Food2Know), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Amr Fatouh
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, 68 Hdayek Shubra, 11241 Cairo, Egypt
| | - Liesbeth Jacxsens
- NutriFOODchem Unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality (Partner in Food2Know), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Carl Lachat
- NutriFOODchem Unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality (Partner in Food2Know), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; Nutrition and Child Health Unit, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Kshitij Shrestha
- NutriFOODchem Unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality (Partner in Food2Know), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jeff Daelman
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality (Partner in Food2Know), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Patrick Kolsteren
- NutriFOODchem Unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality (Partner in Food2Know), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; Nutrition and Child Health Unit, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Herman Van Langenhove
- Research Group EnVOC, Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Bruno De Meulenaer
- NutriFOODchem Unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality (Partner in Food2Know), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Muncke J, Myers JP, Scheringer M, Porta M. Food packaging and migration of food contact materials: will epidemiologists rise to the neotoxic challenge? J Epidemiol Community Health 2014; 68:592-4. [PMID: 24554760 DOI: 10.1136/jech-2013-202593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jane Muncke
- Food Packaging Forum Foundation, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - John Peterson Myers
- Environmental Health Sciences, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Martin Scheringer
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Miquel Porta
- Hospital del Mar Institute of Medical Research (IMIM), School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and CIBERESP, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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31
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Koster S, Rennen M, Leeman W, Houben G, Muilwijk B, van Acker F, Krul L. A novel safety assessment strategy for non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) in carton food contact materials. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2014; 31:422-43. [PMID: 24237267 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.866718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
One of the main challenges in food contact materials research is to prove that the presence of non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) is not a safety issue. Migration extracts may contain many unknown substances present at low concentrations. It is difficult and time-consuming to identify all these potential NIAS and concurrently to assess their health risk upon exposure, whereas the health relevance at low exposure levels might not even be an issue. This paper describes a scientifically based, but pragmatic safety assessment approach for unknown substances present at low exposure levels in food contact matrices. This complex mixture safety assessment strategy (CoMSAS) enables one to distinguish toxicologically relevant from toxicologically less relevant substances, when related to their respective levels of exposure, and allows one to focus on the substances of potential health concern. In particular, substances for which exposure will be below certain thresholds may be considered not of health relevance in case specific classes of substances are excluded. This can reduce the amount of work needed for identification, characterisation and evaluation of unknown substances at low concentration. The CoMSAS approach is presented in this paper using a safety assessment of unknown NIAS that may migrate from three carton samples.
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Price P, Zaleski R, Hollnagel H, Ketelslegers H, Han X. Assessing the safety of co-exposure to food packaging migrants in food and water using the maximum cumulative ratio and an established decision tree. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2014; 31:414-21. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.865145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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33
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Leeman WR, Krul L, Houben GF. Complex mixtures: relevance of combined exposure to substances at low dose levels. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 58:141-8. [PMID: 23597445 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.03.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Revised: 03/12/2013] [Accepted: 03/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Upon analysis of chemically complex food matrices a forest of peaks is likely to be found. Identification of these peaks and concurrent determination of the toxicological relevance upon exposure is very time consuming, expensive and often requires animal studies. Recently, a safety assessment framework based on the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) was published to assess the safety of chemically complex matrices more efficiently. In this safety assessment framework, the toxicological relevance of exposure to unidentified substances in chemically complex food matrices can be related to the Cramer class III TTC threshold, currently set at 90 μg/day. However, possible additive or synergistic effects of combined exposure is not covered. The current evaluation describes the relevance of combined low dose exposure to unidentified substances in chemically complex food matrices. It is concluded that to some extent cumulative effects at exposure levels for each substance at or below the Cramer class III TTC threshold, being present in a complex mixture including food, might occur. However the health relevance of possible cumulative effects at this dose level is considered to be that low that a need for a correction factor to cover possible cumulative effects is very low to absent.
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34
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Robinson C, Holland N, Leloup D, Muilerman H. Conflicts of interest at the European Food Safety Authority erode public confidence. J Epidemiol Community Health 2013; 67:717-20. [DOI: 10.1136/jech-2012-202185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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35
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Canady R, Lane R, Paoli G, Wilson M, Bialk H, Hermansky S, Kobielush B, Lee JE, Llewellyn C, Scimeca J. Determining the applicability of threshold of toxicological concern approaches to substances found in foods. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2013; 53:1239-49. [PMID: 24090142 PMCID: PMC3809586 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2012.752341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
Abstract
Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) decision-support methods present a pragmatic approach to using data from well-characterized chemicals and protective estimates of exposure in a stepwise fashion to inform decisions regarding low-level exposures to chemicals for which few data exist. It is based on structural and functional categorizations of chemicals derived from decades of animal testing with a wide variety of chemicals. Expertise is required to use the TTC methods, and there are situations in which its use is clearly inappropriate or not currently supported. To facilitate proper use of the TTC, this paper describes issues to be considered by risk managers when faced with the situation of an unexpected substance in food. Case studies are provided to illustrate the implementation of these considerations, demonstrating the steps taken in deciding whether it would be appropriate to apply the TTC approach in each case. By appropriately applying the methods, employing the appropriate scientific expertise, and combining use with the conservative assumptions embedded within the derivation of the thresholds, the TTC can realize its potential to protect public health and to contribute to efficient use of resources in food safety risk management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Canady
- Center for Risk Science Innovation and Application (RSIA), ILSI Research Foundation, 1156 Fifteenth Street NW, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20005-1743, USA
| | - Richard Lane
- PepsiCo Inc., 350 Columbus Avenue, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
| | - Greg Paoli
- Risk Sciences International (RSI), 325 Dalhousie Street, 10th Floor, Ottawa, ON K1N 7G2, Canada
| | - Margaret Wilson
- Risk Sciences International (RSI), 325 Dalhousie Street, 10th Floor, Ottawa, ON K1N 7G2, Canada
| | - Heidi Bialk
- PepsiCo Inc., 350 Columbus Avenue, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
| | - Steven Hermansky
- Scientific and Regulatory Affairs and Toxicology, ConAgra Foods Inc., Six ConAgra Drive, Mail Stop 6-460, Omaha, NE 68102-5006, USA
| | - Brent Kobielush
- General Mills Inc., One General Mills Boulevard, W01-B, Minneapolis, MN 55426, USA
| | - Ji-Eun Lee
- Kellogg Co., 2 Hamblin Avenue E, Battle Creek, MI 49017, USA
| | - Craig Llewellyn
- Scientific and Regulatory Affairs, Coca-Cola Company North America, One Coca-Cola Plaza, PO Box Drawer 1734, Atlanta, GA 30301, USA
| | - Joseph Scimeca
- Cargill Inc., 15407 McGinty Road West, MS #56, Wayzata, MN 55391, USA
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36
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van Ravenzwaay B, Dammann M, Buesen R, Flick B, Schneider S. The threshold of toxicological concern for prenatal developmental toxicity in rabbits and a comparison to TTC values in rats. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2012; 64:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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