Estimated exposure to EU regulated mycotoxins and risk characterization of aflatoxin-induced hepatic toxicity through the consumption of the toasted cereal flour called "gofio", a traditional food of the Canary Islands (Spain)

Comparative analysis of mycotoxin, pesticide, and elemental content of Canarian craft and Spanish mainstream beers

The number of craft breweries and the volume of craft beer produced globally is growing exponentially. However, little is known about their differences with mainstream beers regarding mycotoxin profile, pesticide and pollutant residues and elemental composition. Given that beer is one of the most consumed beverages worldwide, it is important to shed light on its toxicological profile. In this study, samples of 23 craft beers and 19 mainstream Spanish beers were collected to perform a comparative analysis including 8 mycotoxins, 225 pesticide residues and 50 POPs, and 50 elements. Mycotoxins were not detected in craft beers, while 100% of mainstream beers presented at least one mycotoxin. In contrast, craft beers contained higher average pesticide residues than their mainstream counterparts, although significant differences were only found in Mepiquat and Metrafenone content. No persistent organic pollutants were detected in any sample. The elemental composition presented differences between the two groups both in the concentration of elements and their hierarchy. In conclusion, the toxicological profile of all beers was safe and is unlikely to constitute a hazard to consumer health. Craft beers present significant differences from their mainstream counterparts in all the dimensions explored.

Essential Metals and Trace Elements in Cereals and Their Derivatives Commercialized and Consumed in Cape Verde

Cereals and their derivatives are basic foods in the human diet and a source of minerals, but the content of elements may vary depending on the type of cereal or its processing. The levels of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo, Co, and Mn have been determined in 126 samples of cereals and cereal derivatives (rice, corn gofio, corn flour, wheat flour, corn, and wheat) commercialized and consumed in Cape Verde using an inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) after a wet microwave digestion process. Some elements stand out in products such as corn gofio (K), wheat (Mg), and wheat flour (Fe). Negative correlations were found between Mo-Na and Na-Zn that could suggest interference between these elements. Bearing in mind the dietary intake evaluation and the guideline values provided by EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) or FAO (Food Authority Organization), the consumption of wheat (100 g/day) provides a notable contribution of Mo, Mn, Fe, and Mg. Considering the nutritional value of the analyzed essential and trace elements, the consumption of different cereals and their derivatives should be promoted.

Toxic Metals in Cereals in Cape Verde: Risk Assessment Evaluation

Consumption of cereals and cereal-based products represents 47% of the total food energy intake in Cape Verde. However, cereals also contribute to dietary exposure to metals that may pose a risk. Strengthening food security and providing nutritional information is a high-priority challenge for the Cape Verde government. In this study, toxic metal content (Cr, Ni, Sr, Al, Cd, and Pb) is determined in 126 samples of cereals and derivatives (rice, corn, wheat, corn flour, wheat flour, corn gofio) consumed in Cape Verde. Wheat flour samples stand out, with the highest Sr (1.60 mg/kg), Ni (0.25 mg/kg) and Cr (0.13 mg/kg) levels. While the consumption of 100 g/day of wheat would contribute to 13.2% of the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of Ni, a consumption of 100 g/day of wheat flour would contribute to 8.18% of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of Cd. Results show relevant Al levels (1.17-13.4 mg/kg), with the highest level observed in corn gofio. The mean Pb average content in cereals is 0.03-0.08 mg/kg, with the highest level observed in corn gofio. Al and Pb levels are lower in cereals without husks. Without being a health risk, the consumption of 100 g/day of wheat contributes to 17.5% of the European benchmark doses lower confidence limit (BMDL) of Pb for nephrotoxic effects; the consumption of 100 g/day of corn gofio provides an intake of 1.34 mg Al/day (13.7% of the TWI) and 8 µg Pb/day (20% of the BMDL for nephrotoxic effects). A strategy to minimize the dietary exposure of the Cape Verdean population to toxic metals from cereals should consider the continuous monitoring of imported cereals on arrival in Cape Verde, the assessment of the population's total diet exposure to toxic metals and educational campaigns.

Inhibiting Th1/2 cells influences hepatic capillarization by adjusting sinusoidal endothelial fenestrae through Rho-ROCK-myosin pathway

CD4⁺ T cells are considered to be vital in chronic liver diseases, but their exact roles in hepatic capillarization, the typical characteristic of liver fibrosis, are poorly understood. This study aimed to assess the roles of typical subtype of CD4⁺ T cells, named T helper 1 (Th1) and Th2 cells in liver fibrosis. Taking advantage of well established fibrotic rat model, we conducted in vitro and in vivo experiments to explore the interactions between liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) and Th1/2 cells; meanwhile we evaluated the degree of hepatic capillarization when inhibiting these interactions with inhibitory antibodies. Our results showed that prohibiting interactions between Th2 cells and LSECs caused the restoration of fenestrae, increased cytokine level of Th1 cells and reduction of hepatic capillarization; inhibiting the interaction between Th1 cells and LSECs produced the opposite effects. Moreover, increased Rho and myosin light chain phosphorylation were observed when Th1 cells were inhibited with the corresponding inhibitory antibody; Th2 cell inhibition yielded the opposite results. This study indicated that Th1/2 cells steer the capillarization process in different directions and this effect is probably mediated by the Rho-Rho kinase (ROCK)-myosin signaling pathway.

Risk of exposure to aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, and fumonisin B1 from spices used routinely in Lebanese cooking

Spices are susceptible to mycotoxin contamination which can cause gastrointestinal and adverse central nervous symptoms in humans, which highlights the importance of assessing the risk of their consumption on a daily basis. The aim of this study was to assess the risk of mycotoxin intake from spices in routinely prepared Lebanese dishes. 150 households were interviewed about their usage of 27 type of spices and 6 routinely prepared Lebanese dishes. Results showed a high variability in consumption levels. Among the investigated dishes, the minimum number of spices that were consumed in a dish was 13 while the maximum was 18. The mean intake of one spice ranged from 0.26 g/portion observed for cloves to 5.37 g/portion for cinnamon, with its intake per portion more than 1 g in 2/3 of dishes. 20% of portion sizes of coriander, cinnamon and fennel, had an intake exceeding 5 g/portion. Ochratoxin A (OTA) Probable Daily Intake (PDI) had a mean of 0.11 ng/kg-bw/day. Mean PDI of fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) was 79.3 ng/kg-bw/day. Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) PDI had a mean of 1.55 ng/kg-bw/day. The Margin of Exposure (MOE) of AFB₁ ranged from 108.10 to 4444.44. The present study showed that the risk of AFB₁ from spices is a matter of concern while the risk of OTA and FB₁ is limited with the exception of FB₁ from garlic and onion.

Influences of Electron Beam Irradiation on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Zearalenone- and Ochratoxin A-Contaminated Corn and In Vivo Toxicity Assessment

Electron beam irradiation (EBI) has high energy, no induced radioactivity, and strong degradation capacity toward mycotoxins, such as zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A (OTA). In this study, we determined EBI’s influence on the physical and chemical properties of corn contaminated with ZEN and OTA. Moreover, the toxicity of corn after EBI was assessed through a mouse experiment. Amylose content and starch crystallinity in corn decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at an irradiation dose higher than 20 kGy. Scanning electron microscopy results revealed that the starch particles of corn began to be crushed at 10 kGy. Essential and total amino acid contents in corn decreased significantly with increasing irradiation dose of EBI (p < 0.05). Feeding EBI-treated corn fodders to mice could significantly improve blood biochemical indexes. The EBI-treated group was not significantly different from the normal corn group and did not display histopathological changes of the liver. EBI treatment can influence the quality of corn to some extent and effectively lower the toxicity of ZEN and OTA in contaminated corn. The results provide a theoretical and practical basis for the processing of EBI-treated corn and its safety.

Risk assessment of the exposure to mycotoxins in dogs and cats through the consumption of commercial dry food

Dry feed for dogs and cats sold in Europe are mostly formulated with cereals and cereal by-products, so the contamination of this food with mycotoxins represents a potential risk for these pets. We analyzed a representation of the best-selling feed brands in Spain. The presence of Aflatoxins (B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂), Ochratoxin A, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, Deoxynivalenol, Zearalenone, and Fumonisins (B₁ and B₂) was quantified, using immunoaffinity columns and LC-MS/MS. In general, mycotoxins were frequently and simultaneously (6-11) detected, with AFB₁, FB₁, FB₂, Deoxynivalenol, and HT-2 detected in 100% of the samples. However, the concentrations of most of them are among the lowest reported so far. Fumonisins were the exception since we report the highest concentrations to date, particularly in cat feed. We practically found no significant differences in the level of mycotoxin contamination in relation to the presumed quality of the feed. We also calculated the daily exposure, and evaluated the acute and chronic health risk posed by these feeds. None of the brands analyzed presented acute risk for any of the mycotoxins. However, the high levels of fumonisins found in some samples could become problematic, if there are hidden forms of them. This is also evident in relation to long-term risk, since in the case of fumonisins the level of exposure exceeds the tolerable daily intake level in 3.5 and 12 times, for dogs and cats respectively. The exposure levels to zearalenone and deoxynivalenol could also be of long-term concern, especially considering the possibility that the continuous exposure to several mycotoxins simultaneously might produce potentiated toxic effects as a result of their synergistic action. Further research on the potential adverse health effects deriving from chronic exposure to low doses of multi-mycotoxin mixtures in pets is needed.

Occurrence of mycotoxins in rice consumed by Iranians: a probabilistic assessment of risk to health

Risks based on cancer and non-cancer endpoints, to Iranians from exposure to several mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin, deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin) following consumption of rice were evaluated. Point estimates of hazard were made for each mycotoxin and a hazard index (HI) and probabilistic estimates were based on results of Monte Carlo Simulations (MCS). All known 17 peer-reviewed studies, published in databases included in Science Direct, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science, as well as grey literature published in Google Scholar from 2008 to 2017 were considered. The 95^th and 50^th centiles of Hazard Index (HI) in Iranians due to ingestion of rice were estimated to be 2.5 and 0.5, respectively. The 95^th and 50^th centiles of people with positive surface antigens for hepatitis B (HBsAg+) risk characterisation for AFB₁ in Iranian consumers of rice were 81 and 79.1, respectively. The 95^th and 50^th centiles for risks of Iranians negative for the surface antigen of hepatitis B HBsAg (HBsAg-) were 4.4 and 2.6, respectively. Based on results of the MCS for risks to cancer effects, the 95^th and 50^th centiles of margins of exposure (MOE) were 233 and 231, respectively. Therefore, it is recommended to update agricultural approaches and storage methods and implement monitoring and regulations based on risks to health posed by consumption of rice by the Iranian population.

Aflatoxin in foodstuffs: Occurrence and recent advances in decontamination

Aflatoxins are highly toxic compounds produced as secondary metabolites by some Aspergillus species, whose occurrence have been reported predominantly in several types of foods of low moisture content, while aflatoxin biotransformation products have been reported mainly in milk and milk products. This review deals with the occurrence of aflatoxins in some of the major food products in the last 5 years including regulatory aspects, and recent advances in detoxification strategies for contaminated foods. Aflatoxin contamination in cereals including corn and peanut is still a public health problem for some populations, especially in African countries. Despite that most of physical and chemical methods for aflatoxin detoxification may affect the nutritional properties of food, or are not safe for human consumption, gamma-radiation and ozone applications have demonstrated great potential for detoxification of aflatoxins in some food matrices. Biological methods based on removal or degradation of aflatoxins by bacterial and yeast have good perspectives, although further studies are needed to clarify the detoxification mechanisms by microorganisms and determine practical aspects of the use of these methods in food products, especially their potential effects on sensory characteristics of foods.

Determination of mycotoxins in biscuits, dried fruits and fruit jams: an assessment of human exposure

A reliable, fast and simple method using UHPLC-MS/MS was developed for the determination of aflatoxins B₁ (AFB1), G₁ (AFG1), B₂ (AFB2) and G₂ (AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), HT-2 toxin and T-2 toxin in crude extracts of biscuits with fruit filling, cookies, dried fruits and fruit jams. The method was successfully demonstrated on 39 samples of biscuits with fruit filling, 34 cookies, 14 dried fruits and 10 fruit jams. The mycotoxins detected in biscuits samples were ZEA, OTA, T-2 and AFB1 with an average concentrations of positive samples of 2.64, 4.10, 8.13 and 1.32 µg kg^-1, respectively; while the mycotoxins detected in jam samples were AFB1, OTA, T-2 and AFB2 with an average concentrations of positive samples of 2.00, 17.7, 4.37 and 1.15 µg kg^-1, respectively. The results showed that the majority of samples were in compliance with relevant regulations. However in eight samples of biscuits and three samples of fig jam the contents of OTA were higher than the existing OTA limits. The combined dietary exposure of selected mycotoxins was estimated for the first time for children, adolescents and adults. The estimated combined dietary exposures were all lower than the proposed value assumed to predict a possible risk scenario.

Key role of liver sinusoidal endothelial cells in liver fibrosis

Because of the prevalence of viral hepatitis and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), liver fibrosis has become a very common disease in Asia and elsewhere in the world, constantly increasing the burden of care borne by society. Hepatic sinusoidal capillarization, characterized by gradually shrinking fenestrae on the surface of liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) and the formation of an organized basement membrane, is an initial pathologic change associated with liver fibrosis. Basic and clinical studies have indicated that LSECs play a key role in hepatic sinusoidal capillarization by affecting various aspects of the development and progression of liver fibrosis. Reviewing studies on the effect of LSECs on liver fibrosis is essential to better understanding the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis and its mechanism of progression. Moreover, such a review will provide a theoretical basis for identifying new methods to promote the regression or even inhibition of fibrosis. This review will focus on structural and functional changes in LSECs during hepatic sinusoidal capillarization and the interaction between the micro-environment of the liver and the body's immune system.