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Ye Y, Tang L, Wang JS, Tang L, Ning X, Sun J, Sheng L, Sun X. Unexpected antagonism of deoxynivalenol and enniatins in intestinal toxicity through the Ras/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Toxicology 2024; 508:153928. [PMID: 39153657 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2024.153928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2024] [Revised: 08/12/2024] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/19/2024]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a kind of widespread traditional Fusarium mycotoxins in the environment, and its intestinal toxicity has received considerable attention. Recently, the emerging Fusarium mycotoxin enniatins (ENNs) have also been shown to frequently coexist with DON in animal feed and food with large consumption. However, the mechanism of intestinal damage caused by the two mycotoxins co-exposure remains unclear. In this study, Caco-2 cell line was used to investigate the combined toxicity and potential mechanisms of four representative ENNs (ENA, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1) and DON. The results showed that almost all mixed groups showed antagonistic effects, particularly ENB at 1/4 IC50 (CI = 6.488). Co-incubation of ENNs mitigated the levels of signaling molecule levels disrupted by DON, including reactive oxygen species (ROS), calcium mobilization (Ca2+), adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the mixed and ENB groups were significantly enriched in the Ras/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, including 28 up-regulated genes and 40 down-regulated genes. Quantitative real-time PCR further confirmed the lower expression of apoptotic gene in the mixed group, thereby reducing the cytotoxic effects caused by DON exposure. This study emphasizes that co-exposure of ENNs and DON reduces cytotoxicity by regulating the Ras/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Our results provide the first comprehensive evidence about the antagonistic toxicity of ENNs and DON on Caco-2 cells, and new insights into mechanisms investigated by transcriptomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongli Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Yixing 214200, China
| | - Luyao Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Yixing 214200, China
| | - Jia-Sheng Wang
- Department of Environmental Health Science, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Lili Tang
- Department of Environmental Health Science, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Xiao Ning
- Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety for State Market Regulation, National Institute of Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Jiadi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Yixing 214200, China
| | - Lina Sheng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Yixing 214200, China
| | - Xiulan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Yixing 214200, China.
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2
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Pérez-Fuentes N, Alvariño R, Alfonso A, González-Jartín J, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. In vitro assessment of emerging mycotoxins co-occurring in cheese: a potential health hazard. Arch Toxicol 2024:10.1007/s00204-024-03872-6. [PMID: 39322822 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03872-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 09/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024]
Abstract
Some Penicillium strains used in cheese ripening produce emerging mycotoxins, notably roquefortine C (ROQC) and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), as well as enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA). Co-occurrence of these mycotoxins in natural samples has been reported worldwide, however, most studies focus on the toxicity of a single mycotoxin. In the present study, the effects of ROQC and CPA alone and in combination with BEA and ENNs A, A1, B, and B1 were analysed in human neuroblastoma cells. ROQC and CPA reduced cell viability, with IC50 values of 49.5 and 7.3 µM, respectively, and induced caspase-8-mediated apoptosis. When ROQC and CPA were binary combined with ENNs, an enhancement of their individual effects was observed. Furthermore, a clear synergism was produced when ROQC and CPA were mixed with the four ENNs. An additive effect was also described for the combination of CPA + ENNs (A, A1, B, B1) + BEA. Finally, the effects of commercial cheese extracts containing the mentioned mycotoxins were evaluated, finding a strong reduction in cell viability. These results suggest that the co-occurrence of emerging mycotoxins in natural matrices could pose a potential health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Pérez-Fuentes
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Rebeca Alvariño
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain.
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain.
| | - Jesús González-Jartín
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
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Lázaro Á, Vila-Donat P, Manyes L. Emerging mycotoxins and preventive strategies related to gut microbiota changes: probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics - a systematic review. Food Funct 2024; 15:8998-9023. [PMID: 39229841 DOI: 10.1039/d4fo01705f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2024]
Abstract
Recent research has focused on the involvement of the gut microbiota in various diseases, where probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics (PPSP) exert beneficial effects through modulation of the microbiome. This systematic review aims to provide insight into the interplay among emerging mycotoxins, gut microbiota, and PPSP. The review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. In this review, unregulated yet highly recurrent mycotoxins are classified as emerging mycotoxins. The most frequently observed mycotoxins included those from the Fusarium genus-enniatins (n = 11) and beauvericin (n = 11)-and the Alternaria genus-alternariol monomethyl ether, altertoxin, and tentoxin (n = 10). Among probiotics, the most studied genera were Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Inulin and cellulose were the most found prebiotics. Data on synbiotics and postbiotics are scarce. Studies have shown that both the gut microbiota and PPSP can detoxify and mitigate the harmful effects of emerging mycotoxins. PPSP not only reduced mycotoxin bioaccessibility, but also counteracted their detrimental effects by activating health-promoting pathways such as short-chain fatty acid production, genoprotection, and reduction of oxidative stress. However, both quantitative and qualitative data remain limited, indicating a need for further in vivo and long-term studies. The formulation of PPSP as functional foods, feeds, or nutraceuticals should be considered a preventive strategy against the toxicity of emerging mycotoxins, for which, there is no established regulatory framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Álvaro Lázaro
- Biotech Agrifood Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
| | - Pilar Vila-Donat
- Biotech Agrifood Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
| | - Lara Manyes
- Biotech Agrifood Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
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Pérez-Fuentes N, Alvariño R, Alfonso A, González-Jartín J, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Enniatins A1 and B1 Modulate Calcium Flux through Alternative Pathways beyond Mitochondria. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:14975-14983. [PMID: 38898562 PMCID: PMC11229004 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c04242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Enniatins (ENNs) A1 and B1, previously considered ionophores, are emerging mycotoxins with effects on Ca2+ homeostasis. However, their exact mechanism of action remains unclear. This study investigated how these toxins affect Ca2+ flux in SH-SY5Y cells. ENN A1 induced Ca2+ influx through store-operated channels (SOC). The mitochondrial uncoupler FCCP reduced this influx, suggesting that the mitochondrial status influences the toxin effect. Conversely, ENN B1 did not affect SOC but acted on another Ca2+ channel, as shown when nickel, which directly blocks the Ca2+ channel pore, is added. Mitochondrial function also influenced the effects of ENN B1, as treatment with FCCP reduced toxin-induced Ca2+ depletion and uptake. In addition, both ENNs altered mitochondrial function by producing the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. This study describes for the first time that ENN A1 and B1 are not Ca2+ ionophores and suggests a different mechanism of action for each toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Pérez-Fuentes
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Rebeca Alvariño
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Jesús González-Jartín
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
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Shen H, Cai Y, Zhu K, Wang D, Yu R, Chen X. Enniatin B1 induces damage to Leydig cells via inhibition of the Nrf2/HO-1 and JAK/STAT3 signaling pathways. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 273:116116. [PMID: 38387140 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Enniatin B1 (ENN B1) is a mycotoxin that can be found in various foods. However, whether ENN B1 is hazardous to the reproductive system is still elusive. Leydig cells are testosterone-generating cells that reside in the interstitial compartment between seminiferous tubules. Dysfunction of Leydig cells could result in male infertility. This study aimed to examine the toxicological effects of ENN B1 against TM3 Leydig cells. ENN B1 significantly inhibited cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. ENN B1 treatment also decreased the expression of functional genes in Leydig cells. Moreover, ENN B1 induced Leydig cells apoptosis and oxidative stress. Mechanistically, ENN B1 leads to the upregulation of Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2 in Leydig cells. In addition, ENN B1 inhibited the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, which is critical for the induction of oxidative stress. Additionally, ENN B1 treatment repressed the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway in Leydig cells. Rescue experiments showed that activation of STAT3 resulted in alleviation of ENN B1-induced damage in Leydig cells. Collectively, our study demonstrated that ENN B1 induced Leydig cell dysfunction via multiple mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongping Shen
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yili Cai
- Department of Acupuncture, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Keqi Zhu
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Dong Wang
- Shanghai Houyu Medical Equiment Co., Ltd, China
| | - Rui Yu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Ningbo University, China.
| | - Xueqin Chen
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China.
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Liu C, Xu W, Ni L, Chen H, Hu X, Lin H. Development of a sensitive simultaneous analytical method for 26 targeted mycotoxins in coix seed and Monte Carlo simulation-based exposure risk assessment for local population. Food Chem 2024; 435:137563. [PMID: 37837896 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
Coix seed, a versatile agricultural product, is known for its nutritional and functional components. However, the common contamination with mycotoxins represents a potential risk for human health. A sensitive analytical method was developed and validated to simultaneously determine 26 mycotoxins, including regulated and emerging, using stable-isotope-dilution-assay and LC-MS/MS. The study found co-contamination in 100% of samples from Southeast China, with 8-15 different mycotoxins for each and a total of 20 for all. Probabilistic risk assessments indicated long-term health concerns, with Aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, and zearalenone being priority for risk control. Overall, this study appears to be the first to develop a rapid and robust analytical method of 26 mycotoxins and to conduct Monte Carlo simulation-based chronic risk assessments for 12 individual mycotoxins detected in coix seed, which would be of significance for risk communication as well as for regulatory authority in devising effective strategies to minimize exposure health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuiwei Liu
- Fujian Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Fujian Institute of Preventive Medicine, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research), Fuzhou 350012, Fujian, China; Xiamen University (School of Public Health), Xiamen 361005, Fujian, China; Sanyuan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Sanming 365000, Fujian, China
| | - Weisheng Xu
- National Institute for Nutrition and Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Lei Ni
- Fujian Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Fujian Institute of Preventive Medicine, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research), Fuzhou 350012, Fujian, China
| | - Huafeng Chen
- Fujian Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Fujian Institute of Preventive Medicine, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research), Fuzhou 350012, Fujian, China
| | - Xiangju Hu
- Fujian Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Fujian Institute of Preventive Medicine, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research), Fuzhou 350012, Fujian, China
| | - Honglin Lin
- Fujian Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Fujian Institute of Preventive Medicine, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research), Fuzhou 350012, Fujian, China.
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De Felice B, Spicer LJ, Caloni F. Enniatin B1: Emerging Mycotoxin and Emerging Issues. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:383. [PMID: 37368684 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Although over the last 10 years several studies have focused on the emerging mycotoxins known as enniatins (ENNs), there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their toxicological effects and the development of a correct risk assessment. This is especially true for enniatin B1 (ENN B1), considered the younger sister of the widely studied enniatin B (ENN B). ENN B1 has been found in several food commodities and, as with other mycotoxins, presents antibacterial and antifungal properties. On the other hand, ENN B1 has shown cytotoxic activity, impairment of the cell cycle, the induction of oxidative stress, and changes in mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, as well as negative genotoxic and estrogenic effects. Overall, considering the paucity of information available regarding ENN B1, further studies are necessary to perform a risk assessment. This review summarizes information on the biological characteristics and toxicological effects of ENN B1 as well as the future challenges that this mycotoxin could present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice De Felice
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Leon J Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Francesca Caloni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy
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Chiminelli I, Spicer LJ, Maylem ERS, Caloni F. In Vitro Effects of Enniatin A on Steroidogenesis and Proliferation of Bovine Granulosa Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14100714. [PMID: 36287982 PMCID: PMC9607026 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14100714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The emerging Fusarium mycotoxins enniatins (ENNs) have been the focus of new research because of their well-documented existence in various cereal and grain products. Research findings indicate that reproductive disorders may be caused by exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins, but little work has evaluated ENNs on reproductive function. Therefore, to determine the effects of ENNA on the proliferation and steroidogenesis of granulosa cells (GC), experiments were conducted using bovine GC cultures. In vitro, ENNA (1−5 μM) inhibited (p < 0.05) hormone-induced GC progesterone and estradiol production. The inhibitory effect of ENNA on estradiol production was more pronounced in small- than large-follicle GC. In large-follicle GC, 0.3 μM ENNA had no effect (p > 0.10) whereas 1 and 3 μM ENNA inhibited GC proliferation. In small-follicle GC, ENNA (1−5 μM) dramatically decreased (p < 0.05) GC proliferation. Using cell number data, the IC50 of ENNA was estimated at 2 μM for both follicle sizes. We conclude that ENNA can directly inhibit ovarian function in cattle, decreasing the proliferation and steroid production of GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Chiminelli
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Leon J. Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Excel Rio S. Maylem
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Francesca Caloni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
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