Amino acid residues responsible for the recognition of dichloroacetate by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2

Two dichloric compounds inhibit in vivo U87 xenograft tumor growth

Dichloroacetate (DCA) is an inhibitor of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) that has been shown to reverse the Warburg effect and cause tumor cell death. Clinical research into the anti-cancer activity of DCA revealed high dosage requirements and reports of toxicity. While there have been subsequent mechanistic investigations, a search for DCA alternatives could result in a safer and more effective anticancer therapy. This study evaluates eight small compounds with a conserved dichloric terminal and their in vitro and in vivo potential for anticancer activity. Initial viability screening across six cancer cell lines reveals even at 10 mg/mL, compound treatments do not result in complete cell death which suggests minimal compound cytotoxicity. Furthermore, in vivo data demonstrates that cationic dichloric compounds DCAH and DCMAH, which were selected for further testing based on highest in vitro viability impact, inhibit tumor growth in the U87 model of glioblastoma, suggesting their clinical potential as accessible anti-cancer drugs. Immunoblotting signaling data from tumor lysates demonstrates that the mechanism of actions of cationic DCAH and DCMAH are unlikely to be consistent with that of the terminally carboxylic DCA and warrants further independent investigation.

Targeting Cancer Metabolism - Revisiting the Warburg Effects

After more than half of century since the Warburg effect was described, this atypical metabolism has been standing true for almost every type of cancer, exhibiting higher glycolysis and lactate metabolism and defective mitochondrial ATP production. This phenomenon had attracted many scientists to the problem of elucidating the mechanism of, and reason for, this effect. Several models based on oncogenic studies have been proposed, such as the accumulation of mitochondrial gene mutations, the switch from oxidative phosphorylation respiration to glycolysis, the enhancement of lactate metabolism, and the alteration of glycolytic genes. Whether the Warburg phenomenon is the consequence of genetic dysregulation in cancer or the cause of cancer remains unknown. Moreover, the exact reasons and physiological values of this peculiar metabolism in cancer remain unclear. Although there are some pharmacological compounds, such as 2-deoxy-D-glucose, dichloroacetic acid, and 3-bromopyruvate, therapeutic strategies, including diet, have been developed based on targeting the Warburg effect. In this review, we will revisit the Warburg effect to determine how much scientists currently understand about this phenomenon and how we can treat the cancer based on targeting metabolism.

Dichloroacetate and cancer: new home for an orphan drug?

We reviewed the anti-cancer effects of DCA, an orphan drug long used as an investigational treatment for various acquired and congenital disorders of mitochondrial intermediary metabolism. Inhibition by DCA of mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases and subsequent reactivation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and oxidative phosphorylation is the common mechanism accounting for the drug's anti-neoplastic effects. At least two fundamental changes in tumor metabolism are induced by DCA that antagonize tumor growth, metastases and survival: the first is the redirection of glucose metabolism from glycolysis to oxidation (reversal of the Warburg effect), leading to inhibition of proliferation and induction of caspase-mediated apoptosis. These effects have been replicated in both human cancer cell lines and in tumor implants of diverse germ line origin. The second fundamental change is the oxidative removal of lactate, via pyruvate, and the co-incident buffering of hydrogen ions by dehydrogenases located in the mitochondrial matrix. Preclinical studies demonstrate that DCA has additive or synergistic effects when used in combination with standard agents designed to modify tumor oxidative stress, vascular remodeling, DNA integrity or immunity. These findings and limited clinical results suggest that potentially fruitful areas for additional clinical trials include 1) adult and pediatric high grade astrocytomas; 2) BRAF-mutant cancers, such as melanoma, perhaps combined with other pro-oxidants; 3) tumors in which resistance to standard platinum-class drugs alone may be overcome with combination therapy; and 4) tumors of endodermal origin, in which extensive experimental research has demonstrated significant anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic effects of DCA, leading to improved host survival.

Pivotal role of the C-terminal DW-motif in mediating inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2 by dichloroacetate

The mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is down-regulated by phosphorylation catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) isoforms 1-4. Overexpression of PDK isoforms and therefore reduced PDC activity prevails in cancer and diabetes. In the present study, we investigated the role of the invariant C-terminal DW-motif in inhibition of human PDK2 by dichloroacetate (DCA). Substitutions were made in the DW-motif (Asp-382 and Trp-383) and its interacting residues (Tyr-145 and Arg-149) in the other subunit of PDK2 homodimer. Single and double mutants show 20-60% residual activities that are not stimulated by the PDC core. The R149A and Y145F/R149A mutants show drastic increases in apparent IC(50) values for DCA, whereas binding affinities for DCA are comparable with wild-type PDK2. Both R149A and Y145F variants exhibit increased similar affinities for ADP and ATP, mimicking the effects of DCA. The R149A and the DW-motif mutations (D382A/W383A) forestall binding of the lipoyl domain of PDC to these mutants, analogous to wild-type PDK2 in the presence of DCA and ADP. In contrast, the binding of a dihydrolipoamide mimetic AZD7545 is largely unaffected in these PDK2 variants. Our results illuminate the pivotal role of the DW-motif in mediating communications between the DCA-, the nucleotide-, and the lipoyl domain-binding sites. This signaling network locks PDK2 in the inactive closed conformation, which is in equilibrium with the active open conformation without DCA and ADP. These results implicate the DW-motif anchoring site as a drug target for the inhibition of aberrant PDK activity in cancer and diabetes.

Distinct structural mechanisms for inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoforms by AZD7545, dichloroacetate, and radicicol

Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) isoforms are molecular switches that downregulate the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) by reversible phosphorylation in mitochondria. We have determined structures of human PDK1 or PDK3 bound to the inhibitors AZD7545, dichloroacetate (DCA), and radicicol. We show that the trifluoromethylpropanamide end of AZD7545 projects into the lipoyl-binding pocket of PDK1. This interaction results in inhibition of PDK1 and PDK3 activities by aborting kinase binding to the PDC scaffold. Paradoxically, AZD7545 at saturating concentrations robustly increases scaffold-free PDK3 activity, similar to the inner lipoyl domain. Good DCA density is present in the helix bundle in the N-terminal domain of PDK1. Bound DCA promotes local conformational changes that are communicated to both nucleotide-binding and lipoyl-binding pockets of PDK1, leading to the inactivation of kinase activity. Finally, radicicol inhibits kinase activity by binding directly to the ATP-binding pocket of PDK3, similar to Hsp90 and Topo VI from the same ATPase/kinase superfamily.