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Boverio A, Jamil N, Mannucci B, Mascotti ML, Fraaije MW, Mattevi A. Structure, mechanism, and evolution of the last step in vitamin C biosynthesis. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4158. [PMID: 38755143 PMCID: PMC11099136 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48410-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Photosynthetic organisms, fungi, and animals comprise distinct pathways for vitamin C biosynthesis. Besides this diversity, the final biosynthetic step consistently involves an oxidation reaction carried out by the aldonolactone oxidoreductases. Here, we study the origin and evolution of the diversified activities and substrate preferences featured by these flavoenzymes using molecular phylogeny, kinetics, mutagenesis, and crystallographic experiments. We find clear evidence that they share a common ancestor. A flavin-interacting amino acid modulates the reactivity with the electron acceptors, including oxygen, and determines whether an enzyme functions as an oxidase or a dehydrogenase. We show that a few side chains in the catalytic cavity impart the reaction stereoselectivity. Ancestral sequence reconstruction outlines how these critical positions were affixed to specific amino acids along the evolution of the major eukaryotic clades. During Eukarya evolution, the aldonolactone oxidoreductases adapted to the varying metabolic demands while retaining their overarching vitamin C-generating function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Boverio
- Molecular Enzymology group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, via Ferrata 9, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Neelam Jamil
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, via Ferrata 9, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Barbara Mannucci
- Centro Grandi Strumenti, University of Pavia, Via Bassi 21, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Maria Laura Mascotti
- Molecular Enzymology group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands.
- IMIBIO-SL CONICET, Facultad de Química Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, San Luis, Argentina.
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza (IHEM)-CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, 5500, Mendoza, Argentina.
| | - Marco W Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Andrea Mattevi
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, via Ferrata 9, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
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Vargas JA, Sculaccio SA, Pinto APA, Pereira HD, Mendes LFS, Flores JF, Cobos M, Castro JC, Garratt RC, Leonardo DA. Structural insights into the Smirnoff-Wheeler pathway for vitamin C production in the Amazon fruit camu-camu. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2024; 75:2754-2771. [PMID: 38224521 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erae016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
l-Ascorbic acid (AsA, vitamin C) is a pivotal dietary nutrient with multifaceted importance in living organisms. In plants, the Smirnoff-Wheeler pathway is the primary route for AsA biosynthesis, and understanding the mechanistic details behind its component enzymes has implications for plant biology, nutritional science, and biotechnology. As part of an initiative to determine the structures of all six core enzymes of the pathway, the present study focuses on three of them in the model species Myrciaria dubia (camu-camu): GDP-d-mannose 3',5'-epimerase (GME), l-galactose dehydrogenase (l-GalDH), and l-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (l-GalLDH). We provide insights into substrate and cofactor binding and the conformational changes they induce. The MdGME structure reveals a distorted substrate in the active site, pertinent to the catalytic mechanism. Mdl-GalDH shows that the way in which NAD+ association affects loop structure over the active site is not conserved when compared with its homologue in spinach. Finally, the structure of Mdl-GalLDH is described for the first time. This allows for the rationalization of previously identified residues which play important roles in the active site or in the formation of the covalent bond with FAD. In conclusion, this study enhances our understanding of AsA biosynthesis in plants, and the information provided should prove useful for biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jhon A Vargas
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Avenida João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Susana A Sculaccio
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Avenida João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Andressa P A Pinto
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Avenida João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Humberto D'Muniz Pereira
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Avenida João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Luis F S Mendes
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Avenida João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Jhoao F Flores
- Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas, Rua Monteiro Lobato 255, Campinas, SP 13083-862, Brazil
| | - Marianela Cobos
- Unidad Especializada del Laboratorio de Investigación en Biotecnología (UELIB), Centro de Investigaciones de Recursos Naturales de la UNAP (CIRNA), Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP), Psje. Los Paujiles S/N, 1600, Iquitos, Peru
- Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas y Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP), Zungarococha, Ciudad Universitaria. Iquitos, Perú
| | - Juan C Castro
- Unidad Especializada del Laboratorio de Investigación en Biotecnología (UELIB), Centro de Investigaciones de Recursos Naturales de la UNAP (CIRNA), Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP), Psje. Los Paujiles S/N, 1600, Iquitos, Peru
- Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas y Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP), Zungarococha, Ciudad Universitaria. Iquitos, Perú
| | - Richard C Garratt
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Avenida João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Diego A Leonardo
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Avenida João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil
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Smirnoff N, Wheeler GL. The ascorbate biosynthesis pathway in plants is known, but there is a way to go with understanding control and functions. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2024; 75:2604-2630. [PMID: 38300237 PMCID: PMC11066809 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Ascorbate (vitamin C) is one of the most abundant primary metabolites in plants. Its complex chemistry enables it to function as an antioxidant, as a free radical scavenger, and as a reductant for iron and copper. Ascorbate biosynthesis occurs via the mannose/l-galactose pathway in green plants, and the evidence for this pathway being the major route is reviewed. Ascorbate accumulation is leaves is responsive to light, reflecting various roles in photoprotection. GDP-l-galactose phosphorylase (GGP) is the first dedicated step in the pathway and is important in controlling ascorbate synthesis. Its expression is determined by a combination of transcription and translation. Translation is controlled by an upstream open reading frame (uORF) which blocks translation of the main GGP-coding sequence, possibly in an ascorbate-dependent manner. GGP associates with a PAS-LOV protein, inhibiting its activity, and dissociation is induced by blue light. While low ascorbate mutants are susceptible to oxidative stress, they grow nearly normally. In contrast, mutants lacking ascorbate do not grow unless rescued by supplementation. Further research should investigate possible basal functions of ascorbate in severely deficient plants involving prevention of iron overoxidation in 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases and iron mobilization during seed development and germination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Smirnoff
- Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
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Castro JC, Castro CG, Cobos M. Genetic and biochemical strategies for regulation of L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis in plants through the L-galactose pathway. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1099829. [PMID: 37021310 PMCID: PMC10069634 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1099829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid, AsA) is an essential compound with pleiotropic functions in many organisms. Since its isolation in the last century, AsA has attracted the attention of the scientific community, allowing the discovery of the L-galactose pathway, which is the main pathway for AsA biosynthesis in plants. Thus, the aim of this review is to analyze the genetic and biochemical strategies employed by plant cells for regulating AsA biosynthesis through the L-galactose pathway. In this pathway, participates eight enzymes encoded by the genes PMI, PMM, GMP, GME, GGP, GPP, GDH, and GLDH. All these genes and their encoded enzymes have been well characterized, demonstrating their participation in AsA biosynthesis. Also, have described some genetic and biochemical strategies that allow its regulation. The genetic strategy includes regulation at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. In the first one, it was demonstrated that the expression levels of the genes correlate directly with AsA content in the tissues/organs of the plants. Also, it was proved that these genes are light-induced because they have light-responsive promoter motifs (e.g., ATC, I-box, GT1 motif, etc.). In addition, were identified some transcription factors that function as activators (e.g., SlICE1, AtERF98, SlHZ24, etc.) or inactivators (e.g., SlL1L4, ABI4, SlNYYA10) regulate the transcription of these genes. In the second one, it was proved that some genes have alternative splicing events and could be a mechanism to control AsA biosynthesis. Also, it was demonstrated that a conserved cis-acting upstream open reading frame (5'-uORF) located in the 5'-untranslated region of the GGP gene induces its post-transcriptional repression. Among the biochemical strategies discovered is the control of the enzyme levels (usually by decreasing their quantities), control of the enzyme catalytic activity (by increasing or decreasing its activity), feedback inhibition of some enzymes (GME and GGP), subcellular compartmentation of AsA, the metabolon assembly of the enzymes, and control of AsA biosynthesis by electron flow. Together, the construction of this basic knowledge has been establishing the foundations for generating genetically improved varieties of fruits and vegetables enriched with AsA, commonly used in animal and human feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan C. Castro
- Unidad Especializada del Laboratorio de Investigación en Biotecnología (UELIB), Centro de Investigaciones de Recursos Naturales de la UNAP (CIRNA), Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP), Iquitos, Peru
- Departamento Académico de Ciencias Biomédicas y Biotecnología (DACBB), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas (FCB), Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP), Iquitos, Peru
| | - Carlos G. Castro
- Unidad Especializada del Laboratorio de Investigación en Biotecnología (UELIB), Centro de Investigaciones de Recursos Naturales de la UNAP (CIRNA), Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP), Iquitos, Peru
| | - Marianela Cobos
- Unidad Especializada del Laboratorio de Investigación en Biotecnología (UELIB), Centro de Investigaciones de Recursos Naturales de la UNAP (CIRNA), Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP), Iquitos, Peru
- Departamento Académico de Ciencias Biomédicas y Biotecnología (DACBB), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas (FCB), Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP), Iquitos, Peru
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Advances in Novel Animal Vitamin C Biosynthesis Pathways and the Role of Prokaryote-Based Inferences to Understand Their Origin. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13101917. [PMID: 36292802 PMCID: PMC9602106 DOI: 10.3390/genes13101917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin C (VC) is an essential nutrient required for the optimal function and development of many organisms. VC has been studied for many decades, and still today, the characterization of its functions is a dynamic scientific field, mainly because of its commercial and therapeutic applications. In this review, we discuss, in a comparative way, the increasing evidence for alternative VC synthesis pathways in insects and nematodes, and the potential of myo-inositol as a possible substrate for this metabolic process in metazoans. Methodological approaches that may be useful for the future characterization of the VC synthesis pathways of Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster are here discussed. We also summarize the current distribution of the eukaryote aldonolactone oxidoreductases gene lineages, while highlighting the added value of studies on prokaryote species that are likely able to synthesize VC for both the characterization of novel VC synthesis pathways and inferences on the complex evolutionary history of such pathways. Such work may help improve the industrial production of VC.
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Henriques SF, Duque P, López-Fernández H, Vázquez N, Fdez-Riverola F, Reboiro-Jato M, Vieira CP, Vieira J. Multiple independent L-gulonolactone oxidase (GULO) gene losses and vitamin C synthesis reacquisition events in non-Deuterostomian animal species. BMC Evol Biol 2019; 19:126. [PMID: 31215418 PMCID: PMC6582580 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-019-1454-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND L-ascorbate (Vitamin C) is an important antioxidant and co-factor in eukaryotic cells, and in mammals it is indispensable for brain development and cognitive function. Vertebrates usually become L-ascorbate auxothrophs when the last enzyme of the synthetic pathway, an L-gulonolactone oxidase (GULO), is lost. Since Protostomes were until recently thought not to have a GULO gene, they were considered to be auxothrophs for Vitamin C. RESULTS By performing phylogenetic analyses with tens of non-Bilateria and Protostomian genomes, it is shown, that a GULO gene is present in the non-Bilateria Placozoa, Myxozoa (here reported for the first time) and Anthozoa groups, and in Protostomians, in the Araneae family, the Gastropoda class, the Acari subclass (here reported for the first time), and the Priapulida, Annelida (here reported for the first time) and Brachiopoda phyla lineages. GULO is an old gene that predates the separation of Animals and Fungi, although it could be much older. We also show that within Protostomes, GULO has been lost multiple times in large taxonomic groups, namely the Pancrustacea, Nematoda, Platyhelminthes and Bivalvia groups, a pattern similar to that reported for Vertebrate species. Nevertheless, we show that Drosophila melanogaster seems to be capable of synthesizing L-ascorbate, likely through an alternative pathway, as recently reported for Caenorhabditis elegans. CONCLUSIONS Non-Bilaterian and Protostomians seem to be able to synthesize Vitamin C either through the conventional animal pathway or an alternative pathway, but in this animal group, not being able to synthesize L-ascorbate seems to be the exception rather than the rule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sílvia F. Henriques
- i3S – Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC – Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Duque
- i3S – Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC – Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Porto, Portugal
| | - Hugo López-Fernández
- i3S – Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC – Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Porto, Portugal
- ESEI – Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Informática, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- CINBIO - Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- SING Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS - Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (Centro Singular de Investigación de Galicia), Vigo, Spain
| | - Noé Vázquez
- ESEI – Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Informática, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- CINBIO - Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (Centro Singular de Investigación de Galicia), Vigo, Spain
| | - Florentino Fdez-Riverola
- ESEI – Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Informática, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- CINBIO - Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- SING Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS - Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (Centro Singular de Investigación de Galicia), Vigo, Spain
| | - Miguel Reboiro-Jato
- ESEI – Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Informática, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- CINBIO - Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- SING Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS - Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (Centro Singular de Investigación de Galicia), Vigo, Spain
| | - Cristina P. Vieira
- i3S – Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC – Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Porto, Portugal
| | - Jorge Vieira
- i3S – Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC – Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Porto, Portugal
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López-Fernández H, Duque P, Henriques S, Vázquez N, Fdez-Riverola F, Vieira CP, Reboiro-Jato M, Vieira J. Bioinformatics Protocols for Quickly Obtaining Large-Scale Data Sets for Phylogenetic Inferences. Interdiscip Sci 2018; 11:1-9. [PMID: 30511150 DOI: 10.1007/s12539-018-0312-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Useful insight into the evolution of genes and gene families can be provided by the analysis of all available genome datasets rather than just a few, which are usually those of model species. Handling and transforming such datasets into the desired format for downstream analyses is, however, often a difficult and time-consuming task for researchers without a background in informatics. Therefore, we present two simple and fast protocols for data preparation, using an easy-to-install, open-source, cross-platform software application with user-friendly, rich graphical user interface (SEDA; http://www.sing-group.org/seda/index.html ). The first protocol is a substantial improvement over one recently published (López-Fernández et al. Practical applications of computational biology and bioinformatics, 12th International conference. Springer, Cham, pp 88-96 (2019)[1]), which was used to study the evolution of GULO, a gene that encodes the enzyme responsible for the last step of vitamin C synthesis. In this paper, we show how the sequence data file used for the phylogenetic analyses can now be obtained much faster by changing the way coding sequence isoforms are removed, using the newly implemented SEDA operation "Remove isoforms". This protocol can be used to easily show that putative functional GULO genes are present in several Prostotomian groups such as Molluscs, Priapulida and Arachnida. Such findings could have been easily missed if only a few Protostomian model species had been used. The second protocol allowed us to identify positively selected amino acid sites in a set of 19 primate HLA immunity genes. Interestingly, the proteins encoded by MHC class II genes can show just as many positively selected amino acid sites as those encoded by classical MHC class I genes. Although a significant percentage of codons, which can be as high as 14.8%, are evolving under positive selection, the main mode of evolution of HLA immunity genes is purifying selection. Using a large number of primate species, the probability of missing the identification of positively selected amino acid sites is lower. Both projects were performed in less than one week, and most of the time was spent running the analyses rather than preparing the files. Such protocols can be easily adapted to answer many other questions using a phylogenetic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo López-Fernández
- ESEI -Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Informática, Universidad de Vigo, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Universitario As Lagoas s/n, 32004, Ourense, Spain. .,Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (Centro Singular de Investigación de Galicia), Vigo, Spain. .,SING Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain. .,Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal. .,Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Pedro Duque
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.,Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.,Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 1021/1055, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sílvia Henriques
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.,Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Noé Vázquez
- ESEI -Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Informática, Universidad de Vigo, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Universitario As Lagoas s/n, 32004, Ourense, Spain.,Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (Centro Singular de Investigación de Galicia), Vigo, Spain
| | - Florentino Fdez-Riverola
- ESEI -Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Informática, Universidad de Vigo, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Universitario As Lagoas s/n, 32004, Ourense, Spain.,Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (Centro Singular de Investigación de Galicia), Vigo, Spain.,SING Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain
| | - Cristina P Vieira
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.,Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Miguel Reboiro-Jato
- ESEI -Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Informática, Universidad de Vigo, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Universitario As Lagoas s/n, 32004, Ourense, Spain.,Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (Centro Singular de Investigación de Galicia), Vigo, Spain.,SING Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain
| | - Jorge Vieira
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.,Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
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9
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Hazra AB, Ballou DP, Taga ME. Unique Biochemical and Sequence Features Enable BluB To Destroy Flavin and Distinguish BluB from the Flavin Monooxygenase Superfamily. Biochemistry 2018; 57:1748-1757. [PMID: 29457884 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b01193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is an essential micronutrient for humans that is synthesized by only a subset of bacteria and archaea. The aerobic biosynthesis of 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole, the lower axial ligand of cobalamin, is catalyzed by the "flavin destructase" enzyme BluB, which fragments reduced flavin mononucleotide following its reaction with oxygen to yield this ligand. BluB is similar in sequence and structure to members of the flavin oxidoreductase superfamily, yet the flavin destruction process has remained elusive. Using stopped-flow spectrophotometry, we find that the flavin destructase reaction of BluB from Sinorhizobium meliloti is initiated with canonical flavin-O2 chemistry. A C4a-peroxyflavin intermediate is rapidly formed in BluB upon reaction with O2, and has properties similar to those of flavin-dependent hydroxylases. Analysis of reaction mixtures containing flavin analogues indicates that both formation of the C4a-peroxyflavin and the subsequent destruction of the flavin to form 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole are influenced by the electronic properties of the flavin isoalloxazine ring. The flavin destruction phase of the reaction, which results from the decay of the C4a-peroxyflavin intermediate, occurs more efficiently at pH >7.5. Furthermore, the BluB mutants D32N and S167G are specifically impaired in the flavin destruction phase of the reaction; nevertheless, both form the C4a-peroxyflavin nearly quantitatively. Coupled with a phylogenetic analysis of BluB and related flavin-dependent enzymes, these results demonstrate that the BluB flavin destructase family can be identified by the presence of active site residues D32 and S167.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrita B Hazra
- Department of Plant & Microbial Biology , University of California, Berkeley , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States.,Department of Chemistry , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune , Pune - 411008 , India
| | - David P Ballou
- Department of Biological Chemistry , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Michiko E Taga
- Department of Plant & Microbial Biology , University of California, Berkeley , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
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10
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Zhang J, Li B, Yang Y, Mu P, Qian W, Dong L, Zhang K, Liu X, Qin H, Ling H, Wang D. A novel allele of L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase is associated with enhanced drought tolerance through affecting stomatal aperture in common wheat. Sci Rep 2016; 6:30177. [PMID: 27443220 PMCID: PMC4957090 DOI: 10.1038/srep30177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In higher plants, L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (GLDH) plays important roles in ascorbic acid (AsA) biosynthesis and assembly of respiration complex I. Here we report three homoeologous genes (TaGLDH-A1, -B1 and -D1) encoding common wheat GLDH isozymes and a unique allelic variant (TaGLDH-A1b) associated with enhanced drought tolerance. TaGLDH-A1, -B1 and -D1 were located on chromosomes 5A, 5B and 5D, respectively, and their transcripts were found in multiple organs. The three homoeologs each conferred increased GLDH activity when ectopically expressed in tobacco. Decreasing TaGLDH expression in wheat significantly reduced GLDH activity and AsA content. TaGLDH-A1b differed from wild type allele TaGLDH-A1a by an in-frame deletion of three nucleotides. TaGLDH-A1b was biochemically less active than TaGLDH-A1a, and the total GLDH activity levels were generally lower in the cultivars carrying TaGLDH-A1b relative to those with TaGLDH-A1a. Interestingly, TaGLDH-A1b cultivars showed stronger water deficiency tolerance than TaGLDH-A1a cultivars, and TaGLDH-A1b co-segregated with decreased leaf water loss in a F2 population. Finally, TaGLDH-A1b cultivars generally exhibited smaller leaf stomatal aperture than TaGLDH-A1a varieties in control or water deficiency environments. Our work provides new information on GLDH genes and function in higher plants. TaGLDH-A1b is likely useful for further studying and improving wheat tolerance to drought stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juncheng Zhang
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Bin Li
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.,The National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yanping Yang
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peiyuan Mu
- Institute of Crop Research, Xinjiang Academy of Agri-Reclamation Sciences, Shihezi 832000, China
| | - Weiqiang Qian
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lingli Dong
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Kunpu Zhang
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Xin Liu
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Huanju Qin
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Hongqing Ling
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Daowen Wang
- The State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center for Grain Crops, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
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Aboobucker SI, Lorence A. Recent progress on the characterization of aldonolactone oxidoreductases. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2016; 98:171-85. [PMID: 26696130 PMCID: PMC4725720 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2015.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
L-Ascorbic acid (ascorbate, AsA, vitamin C) is essential for animal and plant health. Despite our dependence on fruits and vegetables to fulfill our requirement for this vitamin, the metabolic network leading to its formation in plants is just being fully elucidated. There is evidence supporting the operation of at least four biosynthetic pathways leading to AsA formation in plants. These routes use D-mannose/L-galactose, L-gulose, D-galacturonate, and myo-inositol as the main precursors. This review focuses on aldonolactone oxidoreductases, a subgroup of the vanillyl alcohol oxidase (VAO; EC 1.1.3.38) superfamily, enzymes that catalyze the terminal step in AsA biosynthesis in bacteria, protozoa, animals, and plants. In this report, we review the properties of well characterized aldonolactone oxidoreductases to date. A shared feature in these proteins is the presence of a flavin cofactor as well as a thiol group. The flavin cofactor in many cases is bound to the N terminus of the enzymes or to a recently discovered HWXK motif in the C terminus. The binding between the flavin moiety and the protein can be either covalent or non-covalent. Substrate specificity and subcellular localization differ among the isozymes of each kingdom. All oxidases among these enzymes possess dehydrogenase activity, however, exclusive dehydrogenases are also found. We also discuss recent evidence indicating that plants have both L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidases and L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenases involved in AsA biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddique I Aboobucker
- Arkansas Biosciences Institute, Arkansas State University, P.O. Box 639, State University, AR 72467, USA
| | - Argelia Lorence
- Arkansas Biosciences Institute, Arkansas State University, P.O. Box 639, State University, AR 72467, USA; Department of Chemistry and Physics, Arkansas State University, P.O. Box 419, State University, AR 72467, USA.
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12
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Aldonolactone oxidoreductases. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1146:95-111. [PMID: 24764090 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0452-5_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin C is a widely used vitamin. Here we review the occurrence and properties of aldonolactone oxidoreductases, an important group of flavoenzymes responsible for the ultimate production of vitamin C and its analogs in animals, plants, and single-cell organisms.
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13
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Schertl P, Sunderhaus S, Klodmann J, Grozeff GEG, Bartoli CG, Braun HP. L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (GLDH) forms part of three subcomplexes of mitochondrial complex I in Arabidopsis thaliana. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:14412-9. [PMID: 22378782 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.305144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (GLDH) catalyzes the terminal step of the Smirnoff-Wheeler pathway for vitamin C (l-ascorbate) biosynthesis in plants. A GLDH in gel activity assay was developed to biochemically investigate GLDH localization in plant mitochondria. It previously has been shown that GLDH forms part of an 850-kDa complex that represents a minor form of the respiratory NADH dehydrogenase complex (complex I). Because accumulation of complex I is disturbed in the absence of GLDH, a role of this enzyme in complex I assembly has been proposed. Here we report that GLDH is associated with two further protein complexes. Using native gel electrophoresis procedures in combination with the in gel GLDH activity assay and immunoblotting, two mitochondrial complexes of 470 and 420 kDa were identified. Both complexes are of very low abundance. Protein identifications by mass spectrometry revealed that they include subunits of complex I. Finally, the 850-kDa complex was further investigated and shown to include the complete "peripheral arm" of complex I. GLDH is attached to a membrane domain, which represents a major fragment of the "membrane arm" of complex I. Taken together, our data further support a role of GLDH during complex I formation, which is based on its binding to specific assembly intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Schertl
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Abteilung Pflanzenproteomik, Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany
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14
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Kudryashova EV, Leferink NGH, Slot IGM, van Berkel WJH. Galactonolactone oxidoreductase from Trypanosoma cruzi employs a FAD cofactor for the synthesis of vitamin C. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2011; 1814:545-52. [PMID: 21397737 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2010] [Revised: 02/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/04/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the aetiological agent of Chagas' disease, is unable to salvage vitamin C (l-ascorbate) from its environment and relies on de novo synthesis for its survival. Because humans lack the capacity to synthesize ascorbate, the trypanosomal enzymes involved in ascorbate biosynthesis are interesting targets for drug therapy. The terminal step in ascorbate biosynthesis is catalyzed by flavin-dependent aldonolactone oxidoreductases belonging to the vanillyl-alcohol oxidase (VAO) protein family. Here we studied the properties of recombinant T. cruzi galactonolactone oxidoreductase (TcGAL), refolded from inclusion bodies using a reverse micelles system. The refolded enzyme shows native-like secondary structure and is active with both l-galactono-1,4-lactone and d-arabinono-1,4-lactone. At odd with an earlier claim, TcGAL employs a non-covalently bound FAD as redox-active cofactor. Moreover, it is shown for the first time that TcGAL can use molecular oxygen as electron acceptor. This is in line with the absence of a recently identified gatekeeper residue that prevents aldonolactone oxidoreductases from plants to act as oxidases.
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15
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Tan TC, Pitsawong W, Wongnate T, Spadiut O, Haltrich D, Chaiyen P, Divne C. H-bonding and positive charge at the N5/O4 locus are critical for covalent flavin attachment in trametes pyranose 2-oxidase. J Mol Biol 2010; 402:578-94. [PMID: 20708626 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2010.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2010] [Revised: 08/03/2010] [Accepted: 08/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Flavoenzymes perform a wide range of redox reactions in nature, and a subclass of flavoenzymes carry covalently bound cofactor. The enzyme-flavin bond helps to increase the flavin's redox potential to facilitate substrate oxidation in several oxidases. The formation of the enzyme-flavin covalent bond--the flavinylation reaction--has been studied for the past 40 years. For the most advocated mechanism of autocatalytic flavinylation, the quinone methide mechanism, appropriate stabilization of developing negative charges at the flavin N(1) and N(5) loci is crucial. Whereas the structural basis for stabilization at N(1) is relatively well studied, the structural requisites for charge stabilization at N(5) remain less clear. Here, we show that flavinylation of histidine 167 of pyranose 2-oxidase from Trametes multicolor requires hydrogen bonding at the flavin N(5)/O(4) locus, which is offered by the side chain of Thr169 when the enzyme is in its closed, but not open, state. Moreover, our data show that additional stabilization at N(5) by histidine 548 is required to ensure high occupancy of the histidyl-flavin bond. The combination of structural and spectral data on pyranose 2-oxidase mutants supports the quinone methide mechanism. Our results demonstrate an elaborate structural fine-tuning of the active site to complete its own formation that couples efficient holoenzyme synthesis to conformational substates of the substrate-recognition loop and concerted movements of side chains near the flavinylation ligand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tien-Chye Tan
- Division of Biochemistry, School of Biotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology, Albanova University Center, Roslagstullsbacken 21, Stockholm, Sweden
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