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Basco LK. Cultivation of Asexual Intraerythrocytic Stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Pathogens 2023; 12:900. [PMID: 37513747 PMCID: PMC10384318 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12070900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Successfully developed in 1976, the continuous in vitro culture of Plasmodium falciparum has many applications in the field of malaria research. It has become an important experimental model that directly uses a human pathogen responsible for a high prevalence of morbidity and mortality in many parts of the world and is a major source of biological material for immunological, biochemical, molecular, and pharmacological studies. Until present, the basic techniques described by Trager and Jensen and Haynes et al. remain unchanged in many malaria research laboratories. Nonetheless, different factors, including culture media, buffers, serum substitutes and supplements, sources of erythrocytes, and conditions of incubation (especially oxygen concentration), have been modified by different investigators to adapt the original technique in their laboratories or enhance the in vitro growth of the parasites. The possible effects and benefits of these modifications for the continuous cultivation of asexual intraerythrocytic stages of P. falciparum, as well as future challenges in developing a serum-free cultivation system and axenic cultures, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo K Basco
- Aix-Marseille Université, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Service de Santé des Armées (SSA), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) Vecteurs-Infections Tropicales et Méditerranéennes (VITROME), 13005 Marseille, France
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire-Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
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2
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Kabongo AT, Acharjee R, Sakura T, Bundutidi GM, Hartuti ED, Davies C, Gundogdu O, Kita K, Shiba T, Inaoka DK. Biochemical characterization and identification of ferulenol and embelin as potent inhibitors of malate:quinone oxidoreductase from Campylobacter jejuni. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1095026. [PMID: 36776743 PMCID: PMC9908594 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1095026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Campylobacter jejuni infection poses a serious global threat to public health. The increasing incidence and antibiotic resistance of this bacterial infection have necessitated the adoption of various strategies to curb this trend, primarily through developing new drugs with new mechanisms of action. The enzyme malate:quinone oxidoreductase (MQO) has been shown to be essential for the survival of several bacteria and parasites. MQO is a peripheral membrane protein that catalyses the oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate, a crucial step in the tricarboxylic acid cycle. In addition, MQO is involved in the reduction of the quinone pool in the electron transport chain and thus contributes to cellular bioenergetics. The enzyme is an attractive drug target as it is not conserved in mammals. As a preliminary step in assessing the potential application of MQO from C. jejuni (CjMQO) as a new drug target, we purified active recombinant CjMQO and conducted, for the first time, biochemical analyses of MQO from a pathogenic bacterium. Our study showed that ferulenol, a submicromolar mitochondrial MQO inhibitor, and embelin are nanomolar inhibitors of CjMQO. We showed that both inhibitors are mixed-type inhibitors versus malate and noncompetitive versus quinone, suggesting the existence of a third binding site to accommodate these inhibitors; indeed, such a trait appears to be conserved between mitochondrial and bacterial MQOs. Interestingly, ferulenol and embelin also inhibit the in vitro growth of C. jejuni, supporting the hypothesis that MQO is essential for C. jejuni survival and is therefore an important drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Augustin Tshibaka Kabongo
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Molecular Infection Dynamics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Public Health, University of Mbujimayi, Kinshasa, Congo
| | - Rajib Acharjee
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Program for Nurturing Global Leaders in Tropical and Emerging Communicable Disease, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Zoology, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
| | - Takaya Sakura
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Molecular Infection Dynamics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Gloria Mavinga Bundutidi
- Department of Molecular Infection Dynamics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Program for Nurturing Global Leaders in Tropical and Emerging Communicable Disease, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Pediatrics, Kinshasa University Hospital, University of Kinshasa, Kinshasa, Congo
| | - Endah Dwi Hartuti
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Program for Nurturing Global Leaders in Tropical and Emerging Communicable Disease, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Research Center for Genetic Engineering, National Research and Innovation Agency, West Java, Indonesia
| | - Cadi Davies
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ozan Gundogdu
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Host-Defense Biochemistry, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoo Shiba
- Department of Applied Biology, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan,*Correspondence: Tomoo Shiba, ; Daniel Ken Inaoka,
| | - Daniel Ken Inaoka
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Molecular Infection Dynamics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan,Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan,*Correspondence: Tomoo Shiba, ; Daniel Ken Inaoka,
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Crispim M, Verdaguer IB, Silva SF, Katzin AM. Suitability of methods for Plasmodium falciparum cultivation in atmospheric air. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2022; 117:e210331. [PMID: 35857970 PMCID: PMC9296140 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760210331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND One of the most controversial factors about malaria parasite culture is the
gaseous composition used. The most commonly used one consists of a mixture
poor in O2 and rich in CO2. OBJECTIVES The present study aimed to share standard methods from our research group
simplifying Plasmodium falciparum cultures by employing
atmospheric air (ATM) and reusable glass bottles under agitation. METHODS Here, it was compared the parasite viability, free oxygen in media, and drug
sensitivity between different strains and isolates maintained for long
periods under ATM or classic conditions. FINDINGS The oxygen concentration in media under ATM was slightly superior to that
observed in human blood and the media under the classic gaseous mixture.
However, ATM or the use of glass bottles did not affect parasitic
proliferation after several years of culture. Noticeably, the introduction
of ATM altered reversibly the efficacy of several antimalarials. This
influence was different between the strains and isolate. CONCLUSIONS ATM conditions and shaken flasks could be used as a standard method
condition for culture manutention since they do not differ greatly from
classical 5% O2 gas mixtures in terms of parasite proliferation
and do not impose non-reversible changes to P. falciparum
physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcell Crispim
- Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Sofia Ferreira Silva
- Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Alejandro Miguel Katzin
- Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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Sussmann RAC, Gabriel HB, Ríos AG, Menchaca Vega DS, Yamaguchi LF, Doménech-Carbó A, Cebrián-Torrejón G, Kimura EA, Kato MJ, Bofill Verdaguer I, Crispim M, Katzin AM. Presence of Phylloquinone in the Intraerythrocytic Stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:869085. [PMID: 35531326 PMCID: PMC9069557 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.869085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is one of the most widespread parasitic diseases, especially in Africa, Southeast Asia and South America. One of the greatest problems for control of the disease is the emergence of drug resistance, which leads to a need for the development of new antimalarial compounds. The biosynthesis of isoprenoids has been investigated as part of a strategy to identify new targets to obtain new antimalarial drugs. Several isoprenoid quinones, including menaquinone-4 (MK-4/vitamin K2), α- and γ-tocopherol and ubiquinone (UQ) homologs UQ-8 and UQ-9, were previously detected in in vitro cultures of Plasmodium falciparum in asexual stages. Herein, we described for the first time the presence of phylloquinone (PK/vitamin K1) in P. falciparum and discuss the possible origins of this prenylquinone. While our results in metabolic labeling experiments suggest a biosynthesis of PK prenylation via phytyl pyrophosphate (phytyl-PP) with phytol being phosphorylated, on the other hand, exogenous PK attenuated atovaquone effects on parasitic growth and respiration, showing that this metabolite can be transported from extracellular environment and that the mitochondrial electron transport system (ETS) of P. falciparum is capable to interact with PK. Although the natural role and origin of PK remains elusive, this work highlights the PK importance in plasmodial metabolism and future studies will be important to elucidate in seeking new targets for antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo A. C. Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center for Environmental Sciences, Institute of Humanities, Arts and Sciences, Federal University of Southern Bahia, Porto Seguro, Brazil
| | - Heloisa B. Gabriel
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro García Ríos
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Metalopharmaceuticals, Institute of Chemistry at the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Chemistry Program, Universidad del Quindio, Quindio, Colombia
| | - Danielle S. Menchaca Vega
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lydia F. Yamaguchi
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Antonio Doménech-Carbó
- Departament of Analytic Chemistry, Facultat de Química, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gerardo Cebrián-Torrejón
- Laboratoire Connaissance et Valorisation Equipes d'Accueil (COVACHIM-M2E EA) 3592, Université des Antilles, Pointe-à-Pitre Cedex, Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, France
| | - Emilia A. Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Massuo J. Kato
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M. Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Alejandro M. Katzin,
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Exploring Ubiquinone Biosynthesis Inhibition as a Strategy for Improving Atovaquone Efficacy in Malaria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:AAC.01516-20. [PMID: 33495230 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01516-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Atovaquone (AV) acts on the malaria parasite by competing with ubiquinol (UQH2) for its union to the mitochondrial bc1 complex, preventing the ubiquinone-8 and ubiquinone-9 (UQ-8 and UQ-9) redox recycling, which is a necessary step in pyrimidine biosynthesis. This study focused on UQ biosynthesis in Plasmodium falciparum and adopted proof-of-concept research to better elucidate the mechanism of action of AV and improve its efficacy. Initially, UQ biosynthesis was evaluated using several radioactive precursors and chromatographic techniques. This methodology was suitable for studying the biosynthesis of both UQ homologs and its redox state. Additionally, the composition of UQ was investigated in parasites cultivated at different oxygen saturations or in the presence of AV. AV affected the redox states of both UQ-8 and UQ-9 homologs by increasing the levels of the respective reduced forms. Conversely, low-oxygen environments specifically inhibited UQ-9 biosynthesis and increased the antimalarial efficacy of AV. These findings encouraged us to investigate the biological importance and the potential of UQ biosynthesis as a drug target based on its inhibition by 4-nitrobenzoate (4-NB), a 4-hydroxybenzoate (4-HB) analog. 4-NB effectively inhibits UQ biosynthesis and enhances the effects of AV on parasitic growth and respiration rate. Although 4-NB itself exhibits poor antimalarial activity, its 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) value increased significantly in the presence of a soluble UQ analog, p-aminobenzoic acid (pABA), or 4-HB. These results indicate the potential of AV combined with 4-NB as a novel therapy for malaria and other diseases caused by AV-sensitive pathogens.
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Swift RP, Rajaram K, Liu HB, Dziedzic A, Jedlicka AE, Roberts AD, Matthews KA, Jhun H, Bumpus NN, Tewari SG, Wallqvist A, Prigge ST. A mevalonate bypass system facilitates elucidation of plastid biology in malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008316. [PMID: 32059044 PMCID: PMC7046295 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites rely on a plastid organelle for survival during the blood stages of infection. However, the entire organelle is dispensable as long as the isoprenoid precursor, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), is supplemented in the culture medium. We engineered parasites to produce isoprenoid precursors from a mevalonate-dependent pathway, creating a parasite line that replicates normally after the loss of the apicoplast organelle. We show that carbon-labeled mevalonate is specifically incorporated into isoprenoid products, opening new avenues for researching this essential class of metabolites in malaria parasites. We also show that essential apicoplast proteins, such as the enzyme target of the drug fosmidomycin, can be deleted in this mevalonate bypass parasite line, providing a new method to determine the roles of other important apicoplast-resident proteins. Several antibacterial drugs kill malaria parasites by targeting basic processes, such as transcription, in the organelle. We used metabolomic and transcriptomic methods to characterize parasite metabolism after azithromycin treatment triggered loss of the apicoplast and found that parasite metabolism and the production of apicoplast proteins is largely unaltered. These results provide insight into the effects of apicoplast-disrupting drugs, several of which have been used to treat malaria infections in humans. Overall, the mevalonate bypass system provides a way to probe essential aspects of apicoplast biology and study the effects of drugs that target apicoplast processes. Malaria parasites rely on an organelle called the apicoplast for growth and survival. Antimalarial drugs such as azithromycin inhibit basic processes in the apicoplast and result in the disruption of the organelle. Surprisingly, addition of a single metabolite, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), allows the parasites to survive in culture after disruption of the apicoplast. Unfortunately, using IPP to study this phenomenon has several limitations: IPP is prohibitively expensive, has to be used at high concentrations, and has a half-life less than 5 hours. To address these problems, we engineered parasites to express four enzymes from an alternative pathway capable of producing IPP in the parasites. We validated this new system and used it to metabolically label essential metabolites, to delete an essential apicoplast protein, and to characterize the state of apicoplast-disrupted parasites. A key finding from these studies comes from transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis of parasites treated with the drug azithromycin. We found that apicoplast disruption results in few changes in parasite metabolism. In particular, the expression of hundreds of nuclear-encoded apicoplast proteins are not affected by disruption of the apicoplast organelle, making it likely that apicoplast metabolic pathways and processes are still functional in apicoplast-disrupted parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell P. Swift
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Krithika Rajaram
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hans B. Liu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Amanda Dziedzic
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anne E. Jedlicka
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Aleah D. Roberts
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Krista A. Matthews
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hugo Jhun
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Namandje N. Bumpus
- Department of Medicine (Division of Clinical Pharmacology), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shivendra G. Tewari
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Ft. Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anders Wallqvist
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Ft. Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sean T. Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Verdaguer IB, Zafra CA, Crispim M, Sussmann RA, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Prenylquinones in Human Parasitic Protozoa: Biosynthesis, Physiological Functions, and Potential as Chemotherapeutic Targets. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24203721. [PMID: 31623105 PMCID: PMC6832408 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24203721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human parasitic protozoa cause a large number of diseases worldwide and, for some of these diseases, there are no effective treatments to date, and drug resistance has been observed. For these reasons, the discovery of new etiological treatments is necessary. In this sense, parasitic metabolic pathways that are absent in vertebrate hosts would be interesting research candidates for the identification of new drug targets. Most likely due to the protozoa variability, uncertain phylogenetic origin, endosymbiotic events, and evolutionary pressure for adaptation to adverse environments, a surprising variety of prenylquinones can be found within these organisms. These compounds are involved in essential metabolic reactions in organisms, for example, prevention of lipoperoxidation, participation in the mitochondrial respiratory chain or as enzymatic cofactors. This review will describe several prenylquinones that have been previously characterized in human pathogenic protozoa. Among all existing prenylquinones, this review is focused on ubiquinone, menaquinone, tocopherols, chlorobiumquinone, and thermoplasmaquinone. This review will also discuss the biosynthesis of prenylquinones, starting from the isoprenic side chains to the aromatic head group precursors. The isoprenic side chain biosynthesis maybe come from mevalonate or non-mevalonate pathways as well as leucine dependent pathways for isoprenoid biosynthesis. Finally, the isoprenic chains elongation and prenylquinone aromatic precursors origins from amino acid degradation or the shikimate pathway is reviewed. The phylogenetic distribution and what is known about the biological functions of these compounds among species will be described, as will the therapeutic strategies associated with prenylquinone metabolism in protozoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi B. Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Camila A. Zafra
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Rodrigo A.C. Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
- Centro de Formação em Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, Porto Seguro 45810-000 Bahia, Brazil
| | - Emília A. Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Alejandro M. Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-11-3091-7330; Fax: +5511-3091-7417
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8
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Valenciano AL, Fernández-Murga ML, Merino EF, Holderman NR, Butschek GJ, Shaffer KJ, Tyler PC, Cassera MB. Metabolic dependency of chorismate in Plasmodium falciparum suggests an alternative source for the ubiquinone biosynthesis precursor. Sci Rep 2019; 9:13936. [PMID: 31558748 PMCID: PMC6763611 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-50319-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The shikimate pathway, a metabolic pathway absent in humans, is responsible for the production of chorismate, a branch point metabolite. In the malaria parasite, chorismate is postulated to be a direct precursor in the synthesis of p-aminobenzoic acid (folate biosynthesis), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (ubiquinone biosynthesis), menaquinone, and aromatic amino acids. While the potential value of the shikimate pathway as a drug target is debatable, the metabolic dependency of chorismate in P. falciparum remains unclear. Current evidence suggests that the main role of chorismate is folate biosynthesis despite ubiquinone biosynthesis being active and essential in the malaria parasite. Our goal in the present work was to expand our knowledge of the ubiquinone head group biosynthesis and its potential metabolic dependency on chorismate in P. falciparum. We systematically assessed the development of both asexual and sexual stages of P. falciparum in a defined medium in the absence of an exogenous supply of chorismate end-products and present biochemical evidence suggesting that the benzoquinone ring of ubiquinones in this parasite may be synthesized through a yet unidentified route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Lisa Valenciano
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, United States
| | - Maria L Fernández-Murga
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, Health Research Institute Hospital La Fe, Valencia, 46026, Spain
| | - Emilio F Merino
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, United States
| | - Nicole R Holderman
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, United States
| | - Grant J Butschek
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, United States
| | - Karl J Shaffer
- The Ferrier Research Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
| | - Peter C Tyler
- The Ferrier Research Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
| | - Maria Belen Cassera
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, United States.
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9
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Novel Characteristics of Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain from Eimeria tenella. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10010029. [PMID: 30626105 PMCID: PMC6356742 DOI: 10.3390/genes10010029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Eimeria tenella is an intracellular apicomplexan parasite, which infects cecal epithelial cells from chickens and causes hemorrhagic diarrhea and eventual death. We have previously reported the comparative RNA sequence analysis of the E. tenella sporozoite stage between virulent and precocious strains and showed that the expression of several genes involved in mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC), such as type II NADH dehydrogenase (NDH-2), complex II (succinate:quinone oxidoreductase), malate:quinone oxidoreductase (MQO), and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3PDH), were upregulated in virulent strain. To study E. tenella mitochondrial ETC in detail, we developed a reproducible method for preparation of mitochondria-rich fraction from sporozoites, which maintained high specific activities of dehydrogenases, such as NDH-2 followed by G3PDH, MQO, complex II, and dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH). Of particular importance, we showed that E. tenella sporozoite mitochondria possess an intrinsic ability to perform fumarate respiration (via complex II) in addition to the classical oxygen respiration (via complexes III and IV). Further analysis by high-resolution clear native electrophoresis, activity staining, and nano-liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (nano-LC-MS/MS) provided evidence of a mitochondrial complex II-III-IV supercomplex. Our analysis suggests that complex II from E. tenella has biochemical features distinct to known orthologues and is a potential target for the development of new anticoccidian drugs.
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10
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de Sena Pereira VS, da Silva Emery F, Lobo L, Nogueira F, Oliveira JIN, Fulco UL, Albuquerque EL, Katzin AM, de Andrade-Neto VF. In vitro antiplasmodial activity, pharmacokinetic profiles and interference in isoprenoid pathway of 2-aniline-3-hydroxy-1.4-naphthoquinone derivatives. Malar J 2018; 17:482. [PMID: 30567541 PMCID: PMC6300878 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-018-2615-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plasmodium falciparum has shown multidrug resistance, leading to the necessity for the development of new drugs with novel targets, such as the synthesis of isoprenic precursors, which are excellent targets because the pathway is different in several steps when compared with the human host. Naphthoquinone derivatives have been described as potentially promising for the development of anti-malarial leader molecules. In view of that, the focus in this work is twofold: first, evaluate the in vitro naphthoquinone antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity; secondly, investigate one possible action mechanism of two derivatives of hydroxy-naphthoquinones. Results The two hydroxy-naphthoquinones derivatives have been tested against P. falciparum in vitro, using strains of parasites chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) and chloroquine-resistant (Dd2), causing 50% inhibition of parasite growth with concentrations that varied from 7 to 44.5 μM. The cell viability in vitro against RAW Cell Line displayed IC50 = 483.5 and 714.9 μM, whereas, in primary culture tests using murine macrophages, IC50 were 315.8 and 532.6 μM for the two selected compounds, causing no haemolysis at the doses tested. The in vivo acute toxicity assays exhibited a significant safety margin indicated by a lack of systemic and behavioural toxicity up to 300 mg/kg. It is suggested that this drug seems to inhibit the biosynthesis of isoprenic compounds, particularly the menaquinone and tocopherol. Conclusions These derivatives have a high potential for the development of new anti-malarial drugs since they showed low toxicity associated to a satisfactory antiplasmodial activity and possible inhibition of a metabolic pathway distinct from the pathways found in the mammalian host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeska S de Sena Pereira
- Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose - LABMAT, Departmento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil.,Post-graduate Program in Biochemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Flávio da Silva Emery
- Departmento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Lis Lobo
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine-GHTM, Unidade de Ensino e Investigação de Parasitologia Médica, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, IHMT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa - UNL, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Fátima Nogueira
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine-GHTM, Unidade de Ensino e Investigação de Parasitologia Médica, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, IHMT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa - UNL, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Jonas I N Oliveira
- Departamento de Biofísica e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Umberto L Fulco
- Departamento de Biofísica e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Eudenilson L Albuquerque
- Departamento de Biofísica e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Departmento de Parasitologia, Centro de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Valter F de Andrade-Neto
- Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose - LABMAT, Departmento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil. .,Post-graduate Program in Biochemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil.
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11
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Gabriel HB, Azevedo MF, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Plasmodium falciparum parasites overexpressing farnesyl diphosphate synthase/geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase are more resistant to risedronate. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2018; 113:e180174. [PMID: 30110072 PMCID: PMC6086031 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760180174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Farnesyl diphosphate synthase/geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS/GGPPS) is a key enzyme in the synthesis of isoprenic chains. Risedronate, a bisphosphonate containing nitrogen (N-BP), is a potent inhibitor of blood stage Plasmodium. Here, we show that P. falciparum parasites overexpressing FPPS/GGPPS are more resistant to risedronate, suggesting that this enzyme is an important target, and bisphosphonate analogues can be used as potential antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heloisa B Gabriel
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Mauro F Azevedo
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Santos, SP, Brazil
| | - Emília A Kimura
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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12
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Hartuti ED, Inaoka DK, Komatsuya K, Miyazaki Y, Miller RJ, Xinying W, Sadikin M, Prabandari EE, Waluyo D, Kuroda M, Amalia E, Matsuo Y, Nugroho NB, Saimoto H, Pramisandi A, Watanabe YI, Mori M, Shiomi K, Balogun EO, Shiba T, Harada S, Nozaki T, Kita K. Biochemical studies of membrane bound Plasmodium falciparum mitochondrial L-malate:quinone oxidoreductase, a potential drug target. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 2017; 1859:191-200. [PMID: 29269266 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is an apicomplexan parasite that causes the most severe malaria in humans. Due to a lack of effective vaccines and emerging of drug resistance parasites, development of drugs with novel mechanisms of action and few side effects are imperative. To this end, ideal drug targets are those essential to parasite viability as well as absent in their mammalian hosts. The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) of P. falciparum is one source of such potential targets because enzymes, such as L-malate:quinone oxidoreductase (PfMQO), in this pathway are absent humans. PfMQO catalyzes the oxidation of L-malate to oxaloacetate and the simultaneous reduction of ubiquinone to ubiquinol. It is a membrane protein, involved in three pathways (ETC, the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the fumarate cycle) and has been shown to be essential for parasite survival, at least, in the intra-erythrocytic asexual stage. These findings indicate that PfMQO would be a valuable drug target for development of antimalarial with novel mechanism of action. Up to this point in time, difficulty in producing active recombinant mitochondrial MQO has hampered biochemical characterization and targeted drug discovery with MQO. Here we report for the first time recombinant PfMQO overexpressed in bacterial membrane and the first biochemical study. Furthermore, about 113 compounds, consisting of ubiquinone binding site inhibitors and antiparasitic agents, were screened resulting in the discovery of ferulenol as a potent PfMQO inhibitor. Finally, ferulenol was shown to inhibit parasite growth and showed strong synergism in combination with atovaquone, a well-described anti-malarial and bc1 complex inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Endah Dwi Hartuti
- Master program of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Indonesia, Indonesia; Biotech Center, Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Daniel Ken Inaoka
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan.
| | - Keisuke Komatsuya
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukiko Miyazaki
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Russell J Miller
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Wang Xinying
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Mohamad Sadikin
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | | | - Danang Waluyo
- Biotech Center, Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Marie Kuroda
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Eri Amalia
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuichi Matsuo
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Nuki B Nugroho
- Biotech Center, Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Hiroyuki Saimoto
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
| | - Amila Pramisandi
- Biotech Center, Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, Jakarta, Indonesia; Graduate School of Infection Control Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoh-Ichi Watanabe
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mihoko Mori
- Graduate School of Infection Control Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuro Shiomi
- Graduate School of Infection Control Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Emmanuel Oluwadare Balogun
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Tomoo Shiba
- Department of Applied Biology, Graduate School of Science Technology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shigeharu Harada
- Department of Applied Biology, Graduate School of Science Technology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tomoyoshi Nozaki
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
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13
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Sharma D, Soni R, Rai P, Sharma B, Bhatt TK. Relict plastidic metabolic process as a potential therapeutic target. Drug Discov Today 2017; 23:134-140. [PMID: 28987288 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2017.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The alignment of the evolutionary history of parasites with that of plants provides a different panorama in the drug development process. The housing of different metabolic processes, essential for parasite survival, adds to the indispensability of the apicoplast. The different pathways responsible for fueling the apicoplast and parasite offer a myriad of proteins responsible for the apicoplast function. The studies emphasizing the target-based approaches might help in the discovery of antimalarials. The different putative drug targets and their roles are highlighted. In addition, the origin of the apicoplast and metabolic processes are reviewed and the different drugs acting upon the enzymes of the apicoplast are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drista Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Rani Soni
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Praveen Rai
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Bhaskar Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Tarun Kumar Bhatt
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India.
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14
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Sussmann RAC, Fotoran WL, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Plasmodium falciparum uses vitamin E to avoid oxidative stress. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:461. [PMID: 29017543 PMCID: PMC5634829 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2402-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasmodium falciparum is sensitive to oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo, and many drugs such as artemisinin, chloroquine and cercosporin interfere in the parasite's redox system. To minimize the damage caused by reactive radicals, antioxidant enzymes and their substrates found in parasites and in erythrocytes must be functionally active. It was shown that P. falciparum synthesizes vitamin E and that usnic acid acts as an inhibitor of its biosynthesis. Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant that protects polyunsaturated fatty acids from lipid peroxidation, and this activity can be measured by detecting its oxidized product and by evaluating reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. RESULTS Here, we demonstrated that ROS levels increased in P. falciparum when vitamin E biosynthesis was inhibited by usnic acid treatment and decreased to basal levels if exogenous vitamin E was added. Furthermore, we used metabolic labelling to demonstrate that vitamin E biosynthesized by the parasite acts as an antioxidant since we could detect its radiolabeled oxidized product. The treatment with chloroquine or cercosporin of the parasites increased the ratio between α-tocopherolquinone and α-tocopherol. CONCLUSIONS Our findings demonstrate that vitamin E produced endogenously by P. falciparum is active as an antioxidant, probably protecting the parasite from the radicals generated by drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo A C Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wesley L Fotoran
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Emilia A Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
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15
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Saito AY, Marin Rodriguez AA, Menchaca Vega DS, Sussmann RA, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Antimalarial activity of the terpene nerolidol. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2016; 48:641-646. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2016.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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16
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Gabriel HB, de Azevedo MF, Palmisano G, Wunderlich G, Kimura EA, Katzin AM, Alves JMP. Single-target high-throughput transcription analyses reveal high levels of alternative splicing present in the FPPS/GGPPS from Plasmodium falciparum. Sci Rep 2015; 5:18429. [PMID: 26688062 PMCID: PMC4685265 DOI: 10.1038/srep18429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a tropical disease with significant morbidity and mortality. A better understanding of the metabolism of its most important etiological agent, Plasmodium falciparum, is paramount to the development of better treatment and other mitigation measures. Farnesyldiphosphate synthase/geranylgeranyldiphosphate synthase (FPPS/GGPPS) is a key enzyme in the synthesis of isoprenic chains present in many essential structures. In P. falciparum, as well as a handful of other organisms, FPPS/GGPPS has been shown to be a bifunctional enzyme. By genetic tagging and microscopy, we observed a changing localization of FPPS/GGPPS in blood stage parasites. Given the great importance of alternative splicing and other transcriptional phenomena in gene regulation and the generation of protein diversity, we have investigated the processing of the FPPS/GGPPS transcript in P. falciparum by high-throughput sequencing methods in four time-points along the intraerythrocytic cycle of P. falciparum. We have identified levels of transcript diversity an order of magnitude higher than previously observed in this organism, as well as a few stage-specific splicing events. Our data suggest that alternative splicing in P. falciparum is an important feature for gene regulation and the generation of protein diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heloisa B Gabriel
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mauro F de Azevedo
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Giuseppe Palmisano
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gerhard Wunderlich
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Emília A Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João M P Alves
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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17
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In vivo antimalarial activity and mechanisms of action of 4-nerolidylcatechol derivatives. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59:3271-80. [PMID: 25801563 DOI: 10.1128/aac.05012-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
4-Nerolidylcatechol (1) is an abundant antiplasmodial metabolite that is isolated from Piper peltatum roots. O-Acylation or O-alkylation of compound 1 provides derivatives exhibiting improved stability and significant in vitro antiplasmodial activity. The aim of this work was to study the in vitro inhibition of hemozoin formation, inhibition of isoprenoid biosynthesis in Plasmodium falciparum cultures, and in vivo antimalarial activity of several 4-nerolidylcatechol derivatives. 1,2-O,O-Diacetyl-4-nerolidylcatechol (2) inhibited in vitro hemozoin formation by up to 50%. In metabolic labeling studies using [1-(n)-(3)H]geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, diester 2: significantly inhibited the biosynthesis of isoprenoid metabolites ubiquinone 8, menaquinone 4, and dolichol 12 in cultures of P. falciparum 3D7. Similarly, 2-O-benzyl-4-nerolidylcatechol (3) significantly inhibited the biosynthesis of dolichol 12. P. falciparum in vitro protein synthesis was not affected by compounds 2 or 3. At oral doses of 50 mg per kg of body weight per day, compound 2 suppressed Plasmodium berghei NK65 in infected BALB/c mice by 44%. This in vivo result for derivative 2 represents marked improvement over that obtained previously for natural product 1. Compound 2 was not detected in mouse blood 1 h after oral ingestion or in mixtures with mouse blood/blood plasma in vitro. However, it was detected after in vitro contact with human blood or blood plasma. Derivatives of 4-nerolidylcatechol exhibit parasite-specific modes of action, such as inhibition of isoprenoid biosynthesis and inhibition of hemozoin formation, and they therefore merit further investigation for their antimalarial potential.
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18
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Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites include some of the most prevalent and deadly human pathogens. Novel antiparasitic drugs are urgently needed. Synthesis and metabolism of isoprenoids may present multiple targets for therapeutic intervention. The apicoplast-localized methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway for isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis is distinct from the mevalonate (MVA) pathway used by the mammalian host, and this pathway is apparently essential in most Apicomplexa. In this review, we discuss the current field of research on production and metabolic fates of isoprenoids in apicomplexan parasites, including the acquisition of host isoprenoid precursors and downstream products. We describe recent work identifying the first MEP pathway regulator in apicomplexan parasites, and introduce several promising areas for ongoing research into this well-validated antiparasitic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Imlay
- Department of Molecular Microbiology Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Audrey R Odom
- Department of Pediatrics Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA & Department of Molecular Microbiology Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
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19
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Isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis is the essential metabolic role of the apicoplast during gametocytogenesis in Plasmodium falciparum. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2014; 14:128-39. [PMID: 25446055 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00198-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The malaria parasite harbors a relict plastid called the apicoplast and its discovery opened a new avenue for drug discovery and development due to its unusual, nonmammalian metabolism. The apicoplast is essential during the asexual intraerythrocytic and hepatic stages of the parasite, and there is strong evidence supporting its essential metabolic role during the mosquito stages of the parasite. Supply of the isoprenoid building blocks isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) is the essential metabolic function of the apicoplast during the asexual intraerythrocytic stages. However, the metabolic role of the apicoplast during gametocyte development, the malaria stages transmitted to the mosquito, remains unknown. In this study, we showed that production of IPP for isoprenoid biosynthesis is the essential metabolic function of the apicoplast during gametocytogenesis, by obtaining normal gametocytes lacking the apicoplast when supplemented with IPP. When IPP supplementation was removed early in gametocytogenesis, developmental defects were observed, supporting the essential role of isoprenoids for normal gametocytogenesis. Furthermore, mosquitoes infected with gametocytes lacking the apicoplast developed fewer and smaller oocysts that failed to produce sporozoites. This finding further supports the essential role of the apicoplast in establishing a successful infection in the mosquito vector. Our study supports isoprenoid biosynthesis as a valid drug target for development of malaria transmission-blocking inhibitors.
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20
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Zhang Y, Zhu W, Liu YL, Wang H, Wang K, Li K, No JH, Ayong L, Gulati A, Pang R, Freitas-Junior L, Morita CT, Oldfield E. Chemo-Immunotherapeutic Anti-Malarials Targeting Isoprenoid Biosynthesis. ACS Med Chem Lett 2013; 4:423-427. [PMID: 23610597 DOI: 10.1021/ml4000436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We synthesized 30 lipophilic bisphosphonates and tested them in malaria parasite killing (targeting parasite geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase, GGPPS) as well in human γδ T cell activation (targeting human farnesyl diphosphate synthase, FPPS). Similar patterns of activity were seen in inhibiting human FPPS and Plasmodium GGPPS, with short to medium chain-length species having most activity. In cells, shorter chain-length species had low activity, due to poor membrane permeability, and longer chain length species were poor enzyme inhibitors. Optimal activity was thus seen with ~C10 side-chains, which have the best combination of enzyme inhibition and cell penetration. We also solved the crystal structure of one potent inhibitor, bound to FPPS. The results are of interest since they suggest the possibility of a combined chemo/immuno-therapeutic approach to anti-malarial development in which both direct parasite killing as well as γδ T cell activation can be achieved with a single compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghui Zhang
- PrenylX Research Institute, Zhangjiagang 215600, People’s Republic
of China
| | | | | | - Hong Wang
- Division of Immunology, Department
of Internal Medicine, the Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Veterans
Affairs Health Care System, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | | | | | - Joo Hwan No
- Center for Neglected Diseases Drug
Discovery, Institute Pasteur Korea, Seongnam-si,
Gyeonggi-do 463-400, South Korea
| | - Lawrence Ayong
- Center for Neglected Diseases Drug
Discovery, Institute Pasteur Korea, Seongnam-si,
Gyeonggi-do 463-400, South Korea
| | | | | | - Lucio Freitas-Junior
- Center for Neglected Diseases Drug
Discovery, Institute Pasteur Korea, Seongnam-si,
Gyeonggi-do 463-400, South Korea
| | - Craig T. Morita
- Division of Immunology, Department
of Internal Medicine, the Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Veterans
Affairs Health Care System, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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van Dooren GG, Kennedy AT, McFadden GI. The use and abuse of heme in apicomplexan parasites. Antioxid Redox Signal 2012; 17:634-56. [PMID: 22320355 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Heme is an essential prosthetic group for most life on Earth. It functions in numerous cellular redox reactions, including in antioxidant defenses and at several stages of the electron transport chain in prokaryotes and eukaryotic mitochondria. Heme also functions as a sensor and transport molecule for gases such as oxygen. Heme is a complex organic molecule and can only be synthesized through a multienzyme pathway from simpler precursors. Most free-living organisms synthesize their own heme by a broadly conserved metabolic pathway. Parasites are adept at scavenging molecules from their hosts, and heme is no exception. RECENT ADVANCES In this review we examine recent advances in understanding heme usage and acquisition in Apicomplexa, a group of parasites that include the causative agents of malaria, toxoplasmosis, and several major parasites of livestock. CRITICAL ISSUES Heme is critical to the survival of Apicomplexa, although the functions of heme in these organisms remain poorly understood. Some Apicomplexa likely scavenge heme from their host organisms, while others retain the ability to synthesize heme. Surprisingly, some Apicomplexa may be able to both synthesize and scavenge heme. Several Apicomplexa live in intracellular environments that contain high levels of heme. Since heme is toxic at high concentrations, parasites must carefully regulate intracellular heme levels and develop mechanisms to detoxify excess heme. Indeed, drugs interfering with heme detoxification serve as major antimalarials. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Understanding heme requirements and regulation in apicomplexan parasites promises to reveal multiple targets for much-needed therapeutic intervention against these parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giel G van Dooren
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
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22
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Lipophilic analogs of zoledronate and risedronate inhibit Plasmodium geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPS) and exhibit potent antimalarial activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:4058-63. [PMID: 22392982 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118215109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the results of an in vitro screening assay targeting the intraerythrocytic form of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum using a library of 560 prenyl-synthase inhibitors. Based on "growth-rescue" and enzyme-inhibition experiments, geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPS) is shown to be a major target for the most potent leads, BPH-703 and BPH-811, lipophilic analogs of the bone-resorption drugs zoledronate and risedronate. We determined the crystal structures of these inhibitors bound to a Plasmodium GGPPS finding that their head groups bind to the [Mg(2+)](3) cluster in the active site in a similar manner to that found with their more hydrophilic parents, whereas their hydrophobic tails occupy a long-hydrophobic tunnel spanning both molecules in the dimer. The results of isothermal-titration-calorimetric experiments show that both lipophilic bisphosphonates bind to GGPPS with, on average, a ΔG of -9 kcal mol(-1), only 0.5 kcal mol(-1) worse than the parent bisphosphonates, consistent with the observation that conversion to the lipophilic species has only a minor effect on enzyme activity. However, only the lipophilic species are active in cells. We also tested both compounds in mice, finding major decreases in parasitemia and 100% survival. These results are of broad general interest because they indicate that it may be possible to overcome barriers to cell penetration of existing bisphosphonate drugs in this and other systems by simple covalent modification to form lipophilic analogs that retain their enzyme-inhibition activity and are also effective in vitro and in vivo.
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Jordão FM, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in the erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2012; 106 Suppl 1:134-41. [PMID: 21881768 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762011000900018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of new drugs is one strategy for malaria control. Biochemical pathways localised in the apicoplast of the parasite, such as the synthesis of isoprenic precursors, are excellent targets because they are different or absent in the human host. Isoprenoids are a large and highly diverse group of natural products with many functions and their synthesis is essential for the parasite's survival. During the last few years, the genes, enzymes, intermediates and mechanisms of this biosynthetic route have been elucidated. In this review, we comment on some aspects of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway and discuss the presence of diverse isoprenic products such as dolichol, ubiquinone, carotenoids, menaquinone and isoprenylated proteins, which are biosynthesised during the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Morandi Jordão
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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van der Meer JY, Hirsch AKH. The isoprenoid-precursor dependence of Plasmodium spp. Nat Prod Rep 2012; 29:721-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c2np20013a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Sussmann RA, Angeli CB, Peres VJ, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum
biosynthesize vitamin E. FEBS Lett 2011; 585:3985-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2011.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2011] [Revised: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 11/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Botté CY, Dubar F, McFadden GI, Maréchal E, Biot C. Plasmodium falciparum apicoplast drugs: targets or off-targets? Chem Rev 2011; 112:1269-83. [PMID: 22026508 DOI: 10.1021/cr200258w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Cyrille Y Botté
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire Végétale, UMR 5168, CNRS, CEA, INRA, Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble, France
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