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Jacxsens L, Coveney C, Culley L, Lafuente-Funes S, Pennings G, Hudson N, Provoost V. The representation of medical risks and incentives concerning egg donation: an analysis of the websites of fertility clinics of Belgium, Spain and the UK. HUM FERTIL 2024; 27:2380667. [PMID: 39056152 DOI: 10.1080/14647273.2024.2380667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 07/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Considering the growing demand for egg donation (ED) and the scarcity of women coming forward as donors to meet this demand, scholars have expressed concerns that clinics may (initially) misrepresent risks to recruit more donors. Additionally, (non-)monetary incentives might be used to try to influence potential donors, which may pressure these women or cause them to dismiss their concerns. Since the internet is often the first source of information and first impressions influence individuals' choices, we examined the websites of fertility clinics to explore how they present medical risks, incentives and emotional appeals. Content Analysis and Frame Analysis were used to analyze a sample of Belgian, Spanish and UK clinic websites. The data show that the websites mainly focus on extreme and dangerous risks and side effects (e.g. severe OHSS) even though it is highly relevant for donors to be informed about less severe but more frequently occurring risks and side effects (e.g. bloating), since those influence donors' daily functioning. The altruistic narrative of ED in Europe was dominant in the data, although some (hidden) financial incentives were found on Spanish and UK websites. Nonetheless, all information about financial incentives still were presented subtly or in combination with altruistic incentives.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Jacxsens
- Department of Philosophy and Moral Sciences, Bioethics Institute Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - C Coveney
- Criminology, Sociology & Social Policy, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - L Culley
- Centre for Reproduction Research, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
| | - S Lafuente-Funes
- Institut für Soziologie, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - G Pennings
- Department of Philosophy and Moral Sciences, Bioethics Institute Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - N Hudson
- Centre for Reproduction Research, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
| | - V Provoost
- Department of Philosophy and Moral Sciences, Bioethics Institute Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Combs A, Kimes MJ, Jaslow CR, Hayes H, O'Leary LB, Levy MJ, Kutteh WH. Perception of pain and the oocyte donor experience: A retrospective analysis of commercial U.S. donors. Reprod Biomed Online 2022; 45:906-912. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rbmo.2022.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Adib Moghaddam E, Kazemi A, Kheirabadi G, Ahmadi SM. Psychosocial consequences of oocyte donation in donors: A systematic review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2021; 267:28-35. [PMID: 34689024 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2021.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Assisted Reproductive Technology by means of oocyte donation is a very successful method leading to psychosocial consequences in donors. The aim of the present study was to conduct a systematic review of the existing literature on the psychosocial consequences of oocyte donation in the donors. The present study was conducted as a systematic review based on the PRISMA checklist. Searches were performed in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SID databases for the documents written between 2000 and 2020 regardless of the research methodology and the employed tools. English and Persian articles focusing on psychological and social issues of oocyte donation were reviewed. From 2,759 studies which were found, finally 14 related ones were selected. Psychosocial challenges of donors were obtained in three dimensions including short-term and long-term psychological reactions to treatment complications, emotional reactions to their function as an oocyte donor, and emotional reactions to the resulting offspring resulting and related social challenges. According to the existing studies, oocyte donation is a challenging process with short-term and long-term psychosocial consequences for donors. In order to prevent the feasible psychosocial hazards caused by the donation process, it is necessary to provide oocyte donors with psychosocial support, proper counseling, and awareness of the facts and possible issues ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Adib Moghaddam
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Ashraf Kazemi
- Nursing and Midwifery Care Research Center, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Gholamreza Kheirabadi
- Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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Kawwass JF, Ten Eyck P, Sieber P, Hipp HS, Van Voorhis B. More than the oocyte source, egg donors as patients: a national picture of United States egg donors. J Assist Reprod Genet 2021; 38:1171-1175. [PMID: 33797005 DOI: 10.1007/s10815-021-02178-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To characterize national oocyte donation practice patterns from the perspective of individual donors rather than of recipients. METHODS Retrospective cohort including all donor oocyte retrievals and transfers reported to SARTCORS in 2016 and 2017 in the USA. Primary outcomes include characteristics of oocyte donors and of donor oocyte cycles. Secondary outcomes include overall pregnancy rates, elective single embryo transfer (eSET) rates, and perinatal outcomes among donor oocyte recipient transfers. RESULTS During the study period, 49,193 donor oocyte retrievals were performed, of which the largest proportion were in the Western US. For all reported retrievals, there were 17,099 unique donors, each of whom underwent an average of 2.4 retrievals (range 1-22). Average donor age was 26.3 years (range 18-48). On average, 24.6 oocytes (SD 12.4) were retrieved each cycle, ranging from 0 to 102. Among 37,657 donor oocyte recipient transfers, 20,159 (53.5%) involved eSET, and 17,725 (47.1%) resulted in live birth. Miscarriage rates were 17.5%, and good perinatal outcome (GPO), defined as full-term normal birthweight delivery, was more likely among singleton (75.7%) than multiple (23.8%) pregnancies. CONCLUSION The average number of retrievals that donors underwent and oocyte yield mirrored national guidelines; however outliers, exist that may unnecessarily increase donor risk. Additionally, among resultant donor transfers, 46.5% transferred more than one embryo despite national recommendations for eSET. The significantly higher likelihood of GPO among singleton pregnancies points to the need to further increase donor recipient eSET rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer F Kawwass
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory Reproductive Center, 550 Peachtree Street, Suite 1800, Atlanta, GA, 30308, USA.
| | - Patrick Ten Eyck
- Institute for Clinical and Translational Science, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | | | - Heather S Hipp
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory Reproductive Center, 550 Peachtree Street, Suite 1800, Atlanta, GA, 30308, USA
| | - Brad Van Voorhis
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 200 Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
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Tober D, Garibaldi C, Blair A, Baltzell K. Alignment between expectations and experiences of egg donors: what does it mean to be informed? REPRODUCTIVE BIOMEDICINE & SOCIETY ONLINE 2021; 12:1-13. [PMID: 33024845 PMCID: PMC7530253 DOI: 10.1016/j.rbms.2020.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluated the retrospective perceptions of egg donors regarding information communicated about immediate and long-term risks during the process of becoming an egg donor, and the alignment of that perception with their experiences and expectations of egg donation. Data were collected using an anonymous online survey. Egg donors' demographics, perceptions of being informed about immediate complications and long-term risks, and alignment between their expectations and experiences were analysed. In total, 375 current and former egg donors participated in an online survey about their decisions and experiences. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 57 years, with a median age of 24 years at first donation for compensated donors. The majority of the participants (81%) provided eggs in the USA, and 86.1% reported being compensated beyond direct reimbursement. Overall, 66% of egg donors surveyed reported feeling that their experiences matched their expectations based upon what they had been told during the informed consent process. While most participants (64.8%) felt well informed about potential short-term risks, 55.2% did not feel well informed about potential long-term risks. The findings indicate that while the majority of egg donors felt informed about immediate complications, there are gaps in knowledge about potential long-term risks. Results from this research provide insight into how egg donors understand risks and benefits, and can be used to improve counselling and informed consent forms and processes. The findings also indicate that longitudinal research on the health and well-being of egg donors is needed in order to improve informed consent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane Tober
- Institute for Health and Aging, Bixby Center for Global Reproductive Health and Department of Anthropology, History and Social Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Christina Garibaldi
- Institute for Global Health Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Alden Blair
- Institute for Global Health Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kimberly Baltzell
- Department of Family Health Care Nursing, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Pennings G. Mild stimulation should be mandatory for oocyte donation. Hum Reprod 2020; 35:2403-2407. [DOI: 10.1093/humrep/deaa227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
The increasing commercialization of oocyte donation is a source of concern. This evolution is expressed in the fact that oocyte donors’ interests are not a priority. For decades now, people mention that oocyte donation holds serious health risks for donors, as if this is an unavoidable given. However, most of the harm is caused by high hormonal stimulation. The risk/benefit balance of high stimulation compared to the risk/benefit balance of mild stimulation does not justify causing greater harm to donors, especially given the fact that donors submit to the procedure without any medical benefit for themselves and to help others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Pennings
- Department of Philosophy and Moral Science, Bioethics Institute Ghent (BIG), Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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Ameh N, Madugu N, Odeku T, Ogbe M, Oyefabi A. A survey of community opinion and perceptions toward gamete donation in north central Nigeria. NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 2020. [DOI: 10.4103/njm.njm_90_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
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Blakemore JK, Voigt P, Schiffman MR, Lee S, Besser AG, Fino ME. Experiences and psychological outcomes of the oocyte donor: a survey of donors post-donation from one center. J Assist Reprod Genet 2019; 36:1999-2005. [PMID: 31300913 PMCID: PMC6823395 DOI: 10.1007/s10815-019-01527-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess the experiences and psychological outcomes of oocyte donors from one fertility center. METHODS An anonymous survey was distributed via a secure email to 161 donors who underwent oocyte donation-anonymous, directed/known, and recruited agency-between January 2008 and January 2019 at the NYU Langone Fertility Center. RESULTS Thirty-six donors completed the survey with the majority between 2 and 10 years since donation. Respondents reported a high prevalence of psychiatric symptoms or diagnoses post-donation. The majority of donors reported positive thoughts and feelings toward their donation process as well as to the knowledge of children born from their donation. Negative comments about donation were in the minority but focused on unexpected aspects about the process or outcome. Based on qualitative analysis, thoughts about family or "family-oriented thoughts" were the most frequent theme in respondent comments. 62.5% of respondents reporting that they would be open to identity-disclosure or open donation after experiencing the process. CONCLUSIONS Despite a high reported prevalence of psychiatric symptoms, the majority of respondents felt positively about the donation experience as well as the prospect of open donation or identity-disclosure post-donation. Further research on long-term psychological outcomes, related to all aspects of donation, is important as the counseling and informed consent of oocyte donors continues to evolve. These data will be particularly important with regard to the aspect of disclosure, both planned and unplanned, in the modern era of electronic information sharing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer K Blakemore
- NYU Langone Fertility Center, NYU Langone Health, 660 First Avenue, 5th Floor, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
| | - Paxton Voigt
- NYU Langone School of Medicine, 550 First Avenue, New York, 10016, NY, USA
| | - Mindy R Schiffman
- NYU Langone Fertility Center, NYU Langone Health, 660 First Avenue, 5th Floor, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Shelley Lee
- NYU Langone Fertility Center, NYU Langone Health, 660 First Avenue, 5th Floor, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Andria G Besser
- NYU Langone Fertility Center, NYU Langone Health, 660 First Avenue, 5th Floor, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - M Elizabeth Fino
- NYU Langone Fertility Center, NYU Langone Health, 660 First Avenue, 5th Floor, New York, NY, 10016, USA
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Degli Esposti S, Pavone V. Oocyte provision as a (quasi) social market: Insights from Spain. Soc Sci Med 2019; 234:112381. [PMID: 31252241 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 06/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The provision of oocytes plays an important role in human fertility treatments. Spain alone performs half of oocyte provision cycles in the European Union whilst all other European countries face an oocyte shortage. How do Spanish fertility clinics manage to match the increasing domestic and foreign demand for female oocytes? Adopting a weak performativity approach and drawing insights from interviews carried out with 20 fertility clinic representatives, this study suggests that Spanish clinics are successful thanks to an egg provision system designed as a (quasi) social market. In the absence of traditional market mechanisms based on price fluctuations, the combination of fixed monetary compensation for providers and altruistic framing of oocyte provision as an act of donation, are used to mobilize relatively high numbers of women. Fertility clinics optimize this supply through a set of supplementary strategies to ensure oocyte supply always meets oocyte demand. Though successful, this market design reinforces gender stereotypes and relies on manipulative notions of altruism. A clear but unacknowledged appropriation of women's bodies and reproductive labour are also operated, which reinforces and reproduces racial and social stratifications. Therefore, we ask whether alternative mechanisms to promote female solidarity across different generations, to raise awareness of the risks of advanced maternal age, and to explore alternative market designs should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Degli Esposti
- Instituto de Políticas y Bienes Públicos (IPP), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), C\ Albasanz 26-28, 28037 Madrid, Spain; Centre for Business in Society (CBiS), Coventry University, Jaguar Building, Coventry CV1 5DL, UK.
| | - Vincenzo Pavone
- Instituto de Políticas y Bienes Públicos (IPP), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), C\ Albasanz 26-28, 28037 Madrid, Spain.
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Gonzalo J, Perul M, Corral M, Caballero M, Conti C, García D, Vassena R, Rodríguez A. A follow-up study of the long-term satisfaction, reproductive experiences, and self-reported health status of oocyte donors in Spain. EUR J CONTRACEP REPR 2019; 24:227-232. [DOI: 10.1080/13625187.2019.1588960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Sauer MV. Revisiting the early days of oocyte and embryo donation: relevance to contemporary clinical practice. Fertil Steril 2019; 110:981-987. [PMID: 30396565 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Oocyte and embryo donation have evolved significantly since they were first introduced to treat human infertility nearly four decades ago. Social, ethical, and regulatory challenges to oocyte and embryo donation have generated controversy and invited public scrutiny. However, oocyte and embryo donation continued to provide physicians the opportunity to treat the "untreatable." Undoubtedly, clinical practices related to oocyte and embryo donation have greatly changed over the years. Yet, they have endured as viable choices of treatment for many patients and their physicians, remained popular owing to their versatility, and, perhaps most importantly, provided consistently high pregnancy success rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark V Sauer
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
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Shapiro DB. Payment to egg donors is the best way to ensure supply meets demand. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2018; 53:73-84. [PMID: 30391092 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2018.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Compensated egg donation has been available in the USA since 1984 and is subject to a variety of regulations. The impact of variation from state to state on the regulation of egg donor compensation can be discerned from an analysis of data reporting to both the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology (SART). Although the CDC data sets are considered as the most complete, they did not, and do not, separately account for cycles conducted with frozen donor eggs, though SART data beginning in 2013 do account for these cycles. A synthesis of SART and CDC data sets allows for the most precise estimates of egg donor supply and also allows for an analysis of the impact of compensation on the incidence of egg donation. In Louisiana, where compensation is expressly forbidden, there appear to be no anonymous, altruistic donations. However, the supply of anonymous donor eggs is reliable in states that allow compensation. This difference implies that the only way to ensure an adequate supply of donated eggs is to compensate the donors accordingly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Shapiro
- MyEggBank-North America and Reproductive Biology Associates, 1100 Johnson Ferry Road, NE Suite 200, Atlanta, Georgia 30342, USA.
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Levine AD, Boulet SL, Berry RM, Jamieson DJ, Alberta-Sherer HB, Kissin DM. Assessing the use of assisted reproductive technology in the United States by non-United States residents. Fertil Steril 2017; 108:815-821. [PMID: 28916332 PMCID: PMC11286221 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2017.07.1168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study cross-border reproductive care (CBRC) by assessing the frequency and nature of assisted reproductive technology (ART) care that non-U.S. residents receive in the United States. DESIGN Retrospective study of ART cycles reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National ART Surveillance System (NASS) from 2006 to 2013. SETTING Private and academic ART clinics. PATIENT(S) Patients who participated in ART cycles in the United States from 2006 to 2013. INTERVENTION(S) None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Frequency and trend of ART use in the U.S. by non-U.S. residents, countries of residence for non-U.S. residents, differences by residence status for specific ART treatments received, and the outcomes of these ART cycles. RESULT(S) A total of 1,271,775 ART cycles were reported to NASS from 2006 to 2013. The percentage of ART cycles performed for non-U.S. residents increased from 1.2% (n = 1,683) in 2006 to 2.8% (n = 5,381) in 2013 (P<.001), with treatment delivered to residents of 147 countries. Compared with resident cycles, non-U.S. resident cycles had higher use of oocyte donation (10.6% vs. 42.6%), gestational carriers (1.6% vs. 12.4%), and preimplantation genetic diagnosis or screening (5.3% vs. 19.1%). U.S. resident and non-U.S. resident cycles had similar embryo transfer and multiple birth rates. CONCLUSION(S) This analysis showed that non-U.S. resident cycles accounted for a growing share of all U.S. ART cycles and made higher use of specialized treatment techniques. This study provides important baseline data on CBRC in the U.S. and may also prove to be useful to organizations interested in improving access to fertility treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron D Levine
- School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia; Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia.
| | - Sheree L Boulet
- Division of Reproductive Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Roberta M Berry
- School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia; Honors Program, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Denise J Jamieson
- Division of Reproductive Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Dmitry M Kissin
- Division of Reproductive Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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de Melo-Martín I. How best to protect the vital interests of donor-conceived individuals: prohibiting or mandating anonymity in gamete donations? REPRODUCTIVE BIOMEDICINE & SOCIETY ONLINE 2016; 3:100-108. [PMID: 29774255 PMCID: PMC5952682 DOI: 10.1016/j.rbms.2017.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2015] [Revised: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Anonymous gamete donation continues to be practised in most jurisdictions around the world, but this practice has come under increased scrutiny. Thus, several countries now mandate that donors be identifiable to their genetic offspring. Critics contend that anonymous gamete donation harms the interests of donor-conceived individuals and that protection of these interests calls for legal prohibition of anonymous donations. Among the vital interests that critics claim are thwarted by anonymous donation are an interest in having a strong family relationship, health interests, and an interest in forming a healthy identity. This article discusses each of these interests and examines what they could involve. The legislation in two countries is considered: Spain, which mandates anonymous gamete donation, and the UK, which prohibits such practice, to assess how these different legislations might or might not protect these vital interests.
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Söderström-Anttila V, Miettinen A, Rotkirch A, Nuojua-Huttunen S, Poranen AK, Sälevaara M, Suikkari AM. Short- and long-term health consequences and current satisfaction levels for altruistic anonymous, identity-release and known oocyte donors. Hum Reprod 2016; 31:597-606. [DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dev324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
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