Genetical and O-glycoproteomic analyses reveal the roles of three protein O-mannosyltransferases in phytopathogen Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum

Early-Stage Infection-Specific Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. Transcripts in H. annosum-Pinus sylvestris L. Pathosystem

Transcriptomes from stem-inoculated Scots pine saplings were analyzed to identify unique and enriched H. annosum transcripts in the early stages of infection. Comparing different time points since inoculation identified 131 differentially expressed H. annosum genes with p-values of ≤0.01. Our research supports the results of previous studies on the Norway spruce-Heterobasidion annosum s.l. pathosystem, indicating the role of carbohydrate and lignin degradation genes in pathogenesis at different time points post-inoculation and the role of lipid metabolism genes (including but not limited to the delta-12 fatty acid desaturase gene previously reported to be an important factor). The results of this study indicate that the malic enzyme could be a potential gene of interest in the context of H. annosum virulence. During this study, difficulties related to incomplete reference material of the host plant species and a low proportion of H. annosum transcripts in the RNA pool were encountered. In addition, H. annosum transcripts are currently not well annotated. Improvements in sequencing technologies (including sequencing depth) or bioinformatics focusing on small subpopulations of RNA would be welcome.

Harnessing RNA interference for the control of Fusarium species: A critical review

Fusarium fungi are a pervasive threat to global agricultural productivity. They cause a spectrum of plant diseases that result in significant yield losses and threaten food safety by producing mycotoxins that are harmful to human and animal health. In recent years, the exploitation of the RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism has emerged as a promising avenue for the control of Fusarium-induced diseases, providing both a mechanistic understanding of Fusarium gene function and a potential strategy for environmentally sustainable disease management. However, despite significant progress in elucidating the presence and function of the RNAi pathway in different Fusarium species, a comprehensive understanding of its individual protein components and underlying silencing mechanisms remains elusive. Accordingly, while a considerable number of RNAi-based approaches to Fusarium control have been developed and many reports of RNAi applications in Fusarium control under laboratory conditions have been published, the applicability of this knowledge in agronomic settings remains an open question, and few convincing data on RNAi-based disease control under field conditions have been published. This review aims to consolidate the current knowledge on the role of RNAi in Fusarium disease control by evaluating current research and highlighting important avenues for future investigation.

The Ubiquitous Wilt-Inducing Pathogen Fusarium oxysporum-A Review of Genes Studied with Mutant Analysis

Fusarium oxysporum is one of the most economically important plant fungal pathogens, causing devastating Fusarium wilt diseases on a diverse range of hosts, including many key crop plants. Consequently, F. oxysporum has been the subject of extensive research to help develop and improve crop protection strategies. The sequencing of the F. oxysporum genome 14 years ago has greatly accelerated the discovery and characterization of key genes contributing to F. oxysporum biology and virulence. In this review, we summarize important findings on the molecular mechanisms of F. oxysporum growth, reproduction, and virulence. In particular, we focus on genes studied through mutant analysis, covering genes involved in diverse processes such as metabolism, stress tolerance, sporulation, and pathogenicity, as well as the signaling pathways that regulate them. In doing so, we hope to present a comprehensive review of the molecular understanding of F. oxysporum that will aid the future study of this and related species.

O-Mannosyltransferase CfPmt4 Regulates the Growth, Development and Pathogenicity of Colletotrichum fructicola

Camellia oleifera is a woody, edible-oil plant native to China. Anthracnose is the major disease of Ca. oleifera, and Colletotrichum fructicola is the main epidemic pathogen. Our previous research indicated that CfHac1 (homologous to ATF/CREB1) and CfGcn5 (general control nonderepressible 5, Gcn5) are integral to key cellular processes that govern fungal development and pathogenesis. Further transcriptomic analyses of the CfHac1 and CfGcn5 mutants, particularly under conditions of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, hold the potential to unveil additional genes implicated in this critical cellular response. We identified all OST/PMT (oligosaccharyltransferase/Protein O-Mannosyltransferases) genes in C. fructicola and analyzed their expression levels. To elucidate novel glycosylation-related genes that may be important for the virulence of C. fructicola, we took an unbiased transcriptomic approach comparing wild-type and the ∆Cfhac1 mutant. Notably, all OST/PMT genes were induced by dithiothreitol and down-regulated in the ΔCfhac1 mutant, yet only the CfPMT4 (Protein O-Mannosyltransferases 4) gene (A04626) was unaffected in the ΔCfgcn5. The results of targeted gene deletion experiments indicate that CfPMT4 plays a crucial role in both vegetative growth and conidiation. Additionally, our investigation revealed that the ΔCfpmt4 exhibits deficiencies in appressorium formation, as well as in its response to cell wall integrity and endoplasmic reticulum stresses. Furthermore, the mutant displayed impaired glycogen metabolism, which may contribute to reduced penetration ability. Overall, CfPmt4, an O-mannosyltransferase, controls the growth, development, and pathogenicity of Colletotrichum fructicola. Understanding the function of the CfPMT4 homolog could provide a potential molecular target for controlling Ca. oleifera anthracnose.

Microbe-induced gene silencing boosts crop protection against soil-borne fungal pathogens

Small RNA (sRNA)-mediated trans-kingdom RNA interference (RNAi) between host and pathogen has been demonstrated and utilized. However, interspecies RNAi in rhizospheric microorganisms remains elusive. In this study, we developed a microbe-induced gene silencing (MIGS) technology by using a rhizospheric beneficial fungus, Trichoderma harzianum, to exploit an RNAi engineering microbe and two soil-borne pathogenic fungi, Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum, as RNAi recipients. We first detected the feasibility of MIGS in inducing GFP silencing in V. dahliae. Then by targeting a fungal essential gene, we further demonstrated the effectiveness of MIGS in inhibiting fungal growth and protecting dicotyledon cotton and monocotyledon rice plants against V. dahliae and F. oxysporum. We also showed steerable MIGS specificity based on a selected target sequence. Our data verify interspecies RNAi in rhizospheric fungi and the potential application of MIGS in crop protection. In addition, the in situ propagation of a rhizospheric beneficial microbe would be optimal in ensuring the stability and sustainability of sRNAs, avoiding the use of nanomaterials to carry chemically synthetic sRNAs. Our finding reveals that exploiting MIGS-based biofungicides would offer straightforward design and implementation, without the need of host genetic modification, in crop protection against phytopathogens.

Extension of O-Linked Mannosylation in the Golgi Apparatus Is Critical for Cell Wall Integrity Signaling and Interaction with Host Cells in Cryptococcus neoformans Pathogenesis

The human-pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans assembles two types of O-linked glycans on its proteins. In this study, we identified and functionally characterized the C. neoformans CAP6 gene, encoding an α1,3-mannosyltransferase responsible for the second mannose addition to minor O-glycans containing xylose in the Golgi apparatus. Two cell surface sensor proteins, Wml1 (WSC/Mid2-like) and Wml2, were found to be independent substrates of Cap6-mediated minor or Ktr3-mediated major O-mannosylation, respectively. The double deletion of KTR3 and CAP6 (ktr3Δ cap6Δ) completely blocked the mannose addition at the second position of O-glycans, resulting in the accumulation of proteins with O-glycans carrying only a single mannose. Tunicamycin (TM)-induced phosphorylation of the Mpk1 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) was greatly decreased in both ktr3Δ cap6Δ and wml1Δ wml2Δ strains. Transcriptome profiling of the ktr3Δ cap6Δ strain upon TM treatment revealed decreased expression of genes involved in the Mpk1-dependent cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway. Consistent with its defective growth under several stress conditions, the ktr3Δ cap6Δ strain was avirulent in a mouse model of cryptococcosis. Associated with this virulence defect, the ktr3Δ cap6Δ strain showed decreased adhesion to lung epithelial cells, decreased proliferation within macrophages, and reduced transcytosis of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Notably, the ktr3Δ cap6Δ strain showed reduced induction of the host immune response and defective trafficking of ergosterol, an immunoreactive fungal molecule. In conclusion, O-glycan extension in the Golgi apparatus plays critical roles in various pathobiological processes, such as CWI signaling and stress resistance and interaction with host cells in C. neoformans. IMPORTANCE Cryptococcus neoformans assembles two types of O-linked glycans on its surface proteins, the more abundant major O-glycans that do not contain xylose residues and minor O-glycans containing xylose. Here, we demonstrate the role of the Cap6 α1,3-mannosyltransferase in the synthesis of minor O-glycans. Previously proposed to be involved in capsule biosynthesis, Cap6 works with the related Ktr3 α1,2-mannosyltransferase to synthesize O-glycans on their target proteins. We also identified two novel C. neoformans stress sensors that require Ktr3- and Cap6-mediated posttranslational modification for full function. Accordingly, the ktr3Δ cap6Δ double O-glycan mutant strain displays defects in stress signaling pathways, CWI, and ergosterol trafficking. Furthermore, the ktr3Δ cap6Δ strain is completely avirulent in a mouse infection model. Together, these results demonstrate critical roles for O-glycosylation in fungal pathogenesis. As there are no human homologs for Cap6 or Ktr3, these fungus-specific mannosyltransferases are novel targets for antifungal therapy.

Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals that ATP synthases regulate Fusarium oxysporum virulence by modulating sugar transporter gene expressions in tobacco

Fusarium oxysporum is a main causative agent of tobacco root rot, severely affecting tobacco growth. Here, 200 F. oxysporum strains were isolated and examined for their virulence toward tobacco plants. These strains were divided into disease class 1-3 (weak virulence), 4-6 (moderate virulence), and 7-9 (strong virulence). To understand the virulence mechanism of F. oxysporum, a comparative transcriptome study was performed using weak, moderate, and strong virulence-inducing strains. The results showed that expression levels of 1,678 tobacco genes were positively correlated with virulence levels, while expression levels of 3,558 genes were negatively associated with virulence levels. Interestingly, the expression levels of ATP synthase genes were positively correlated with F. oxysporum virulence. To verify whether ATP synthase gene expression is associated with F. oxysporum virulence, 5 strains each of strong, moderate, and weak virulence-inducing strains were tested using qRT-PCR. The results confirmed that ATP synthase gene expression is positively correlated with virulence levels. Knock-out mutants of ATP synthase genes resulted in a relatively weak virulence compared to wild-type as well as the inhibition of F. oxysporum-mediated suppression of NtSUC4, NtSTP12, NtHEX6, and NtSWEET, suggesting that ATP synthase activity is also associated with the virulence. Taken together, our analyses show that ATP synthases are key genes for the regulation of F. oxysporum virulence and provide important information for understanding the virulence mechanism of F. oxysporum in tobacco root rot.

Protein O-mannosylation across kingdoms and related diseases: From glycobiology to glycopathology

The post-translational glycosylation of proteins by O-linked α-mannose is conserved from bacteria to humans. Due to advances in high-throughput mass spectrometry-based approaches, a variety of glycoproteins are identified to be O-mannosylated. Various proteins with O-mannosylation are involved in biological processes, providing essential necessity for proper growth and development. In this review, we summarize the process and regulation of O-mannosylation. The multi-step O-mannosylation procedures are quite dynamic and complex, especially when considering the structural and functional inspection of the involved enzymes. The widely studied O-mannosylated proteins in human include α-Dystroglycan (α-DG), cadherins, protocadherins, and plexin, and their aberrant O-mannosylation are associated with many diseases. In addition, O-mannosylation also contributes to diverse functions in lower eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Finally, we present the relationship between O-mannosylation and gut microbiota (GM), and elucidate that O-mannosylation in microbiome is of great importance in the dynamic balance of GM. Our study provides an overview of the processes of O-mannosylation in mammalian cells and other organisms, and also associated regulated enzymes and biological functions, which could contribute to the understanding of newly discovered O-mannosylated glycoproteins.

Emerging Roles of Posttranslational Modifications in Plant-Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria

Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) play crucial roles in regulating protein function and thereby control many cellular processes and biological phenotypes in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Several recent studies illustrate how plant fungal and bacterial pathogens use these PTMs to facilitate development, stress response, and host infection. In this review, we discuss PTMs that have key roles in the biological and infection processes of plant-pathogenic fungi and bacteria. The emerging roles of PTMs during pathogen-plant interactions are highlighted. We also summarize traditional tools and emerging proteomics approaches for PTM research. These discoveries open new avenues for investigating the fundamental infection mechanisms of plant pathogens and the discovery of novel strategies for plant disease control.

Protein glycosylation during infection by plant pathogenic fungi

Glycosylation is a conserved set of post-translational modifications that exists in all eukaryotic cells. During the last decade, the role of glycosylation in plant pathogenic fungi has received significant attention and considerable progress has been made especially in Ustilago maydis and Magnaporthe oryzae. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of the role of N-glycosylation, O-glycosylation and glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors during plant infection by pathogenic fungi. We highlight the roles of these processes in regulatory mechanisms associated with appressorium formation, host penetration, biotrophic growth and immune evasion. We argue that improved knowledge of glycosylation pathways and the impact of these modifications on fungal pathogenesis is overdue and could provide novel strategies for disease control.

FoEG1, a secreted glycoside hydrolase family 12 protein from Fusarium oxysporum, triggers cell death and modulates plant immunity

Fusarium oxysporum is an important soilborne fungal pathogen with many different formae speciales that can colonize the plant vascular system and cause serious crop wilt disease worldwide. We found a glycoside hydrolase family 12 protein FoEG1, secreted by F. oxysporum, that acted as a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) targeting the apoplast of plants to induce cell death. Purified FoEG1 protein triggered cell death in different plants and induced the plant defence response to enhance the disease resistance of plants. The ability of FoEG1 to induce cell death was mediated by leucine-rich repeat (LRR) receptor-like kinases BAK1 and SOBIR1, and this ability was independent of its hydrolase activity. The mutants of cysteine residues did not affect the ability of FoEG1 to induce cell death, and an 86 amino acid fragment from amino acid positions 144 to 229 of FoEG1 was sufficient to induce cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana. In addition, the expression of FoEG1 was strongly induced in the early stage of F. oxysporum infection of host plants, and FoEG1 deletion or loss of enzyme activity reduced the virulence of F. oxysporum. Therefore, our results suggest that FoEG1 can contribute to the virulence of F. oxysporum depending on its enzyme activity and can also act as a PAMP to induce plant defence responses.

Structural, Evolutionary, and Functional Analysis of the Protein O-Mannosyltransferase Family in Pathogenic Fungi

Protein O-mannosyltransferases (Pmts) comprise a group of proteins that add mannoses to substrate proteins at the endoplasmic reticulum. This post-translational modification is important for the faithful transfer of nascent glycoproteins throughout the secretory pathway. Most fungi genomes encode three O-mannosyltransferases, usually named Pmt1, Pmt2, and Pmt4. In pathogenic fungi, Pmts, especially Pmt4, are key factors for virulence. Although the importance of Pmts for fungal pathogenesis is well established in a wide range of pathogens, questions remain regarding certain features of Pmts. For example, why does the single deletion of each pmt gene have an asymmetrical impact on host colonization? Here, we analyse the origin of Pmts in fungi and review the most important phenotypes associated with Pmt mutants in pathogenic fungi. Hence, we highlight the enormous relevance of these glycotransferases for fungal pathogenic development.