Co-encapsulation and sustained-release of four components in ginkgo terpenes from injectable PELGE nanoparticles

Preparation and Preliminary Analysis of Several Nanoformulations Based on Plant Extracts and Biodegradable Polymers as a Possible Application for Chronic Venous Disease Therapy

Nanotechnology is one of the newest directions for plant-based therapies. Chronic venous disease often predisposes to long-term and invasive treatment. This research focused on the inclusion of vegetal extracts from Sophorae flos (SE), Calendulae flos (CE), and Ginkgo bilobae folium (GE) in formulations with PHB and PLGA polymers and their physicochemical characterization as a preliminary stage for possible use in the development of a complex therapeutic product. The samples were prepared by an oil-water emulsification and solvent evaporation technique, resulting in suspensions with high spreadability and a pH of 5.5. ATR-FTIR analysis revealed bands for stretching vibrations (O-H, C=O, and C-H in symmetric and asymmetric methyl and methylene) in the same regions as the base components, but switched to high or low wavenumbers and absorbance, highlighting the formation of adducts/complexes between the extracts and polymers. The obtained formulations were in the amorphous phase, as confirmed by XRD analysis. AFM analysis emphasized the morphological peculiarities of the extract-polymer nanoformulations. It could be noticed that, in the case of SE-based formulations, the dominant characteristics for SE-PHB and SE-PLGA composition were the formation of random large (SE-PHB) and smaller uniform (SE-PLGA) particles; further on, these particles tended to aggregate in the case of SE-PHB-PLGA. For the CE- and GE-based formulations, the dominant surface morphology was their porosity, generally with small pores, but larger cavities were observed in some cases (CE- and GE-PHB). The highest roughness values at the (8 µm × 8 μm) scale were found for the following samples and succession: CE-PHB < SE-PLGA < SE-PHB-PLGA. In addition, by thermogravimetric analysis, impregnation in the matrix of compression stockings was evaluated, which varied in the following order: CE-polymer > SE-polymer > GE-polymer. In conclusion, nine vegetal extract-polymer nanoformulations were prepared and preliminarily characterized (by advanced physicochemical methods) as a starting point for further optimization, stability studies, and possible use in complex pharmaceutical products.

Ephedra intermedia Schrenk & C. A. Mey Methanol Extract: Nanoencapsulation by Mini-Emulsion Polymerization and its Release Trend under Simulated Conditions of the Human Body

In this research, the extract of Ephedra intermedia Schrenk & C.A.Mey. was encapsulated using the mini-emulsion polymerization method based on methyl methacrylate polymers with a nanometer size. The encapsulated extract was characterized using different analytical techniques. Furthermore, the loading efficiency and release of the plant extract were examined. FT-IR spectroscopy confirmed the formation of an expectational product. The TEM and SEM imaging showed a spherical morphology for the prepared encapsulated extract. The average size of poly-methyl-methacrylate nanoparticles containing Ephedra extract was found to be approximately 47 nm. The extract loading efficiency and encapsulation efficiency test demonstrated a dose-depending behavior on E. intermedia extract for both analyses, which is highly advantageous for traversing biological barriers. The release assay shows a controlled release for the extract at phosphate buffer solution (PBS). A 38 % release was calculated after 36 hours. The results obtained from the present study reveal that encapsulating the plant extract is a suitable alternative to control and increase their medicinal properties.

Organic and Biogenic Nanocarriers as Bio-Friendly Systems for Bioactive Compounds' Delivery: State-of-the Art and Challenges

"Green" strategies to build up novel organic nanocarriers with bioperformance are modern trends in nanotechnology. In this way, the valorization of bio-wastes and the use of living systems to develop multifunctional organic and biogenic nanocarriers (OBNs) have revolutionized the nanotechnological and biomedical fields. This paper is a comprehensive review related to OBNs for bioactives' delivery, providing an overview of the reports on the past two decades. In the first part, several classes of bioactive compounds and their therapeutic role are briefly presented. A broad section is dedicated to the main categories of organic and biogenic nanocarriers. The major challenges regarding the eco-design and the fate of OBNs are suggested to overcome some toxicity-related drawbacks. Future directions and opportunities, and finding "green" solutions for solving the problems related to nanocarriers, are outlined in the final of this paper. We believe that through this review, we will capture the attention of the readers and will open new perspectives for new solutions/ideas for the discovery of more efficient and "green" ways in developing novel bioperformant nanocarriers for transporting bioactive agents.

Formulation and optimization of polymeric nanoparticles loaded with riolozatrione: a promising nanoformulation with potential antiherpetic activity

Riolozatrione (RZ) is a diterpenoid compound isolated from a dichloromethane extract of the Jatropha dioica root. This compound has been shown to possess moderate antiherpetic activity in vitro. However, because of the poor solubility of this compound in aqueous vehicles, generating a stable formulation for potential use in the treatment of infection is challenging. The aim of this work was to optimize and physio-chemically characterize Eudragit® L100-55-based polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with RZ (NPR) for in vitro antiherpetic application. The NPs formulation was initially optimized using the dichloromethane extract of J. dioica, the major component of which was RZ. The optimized NPR formulation was stable, with a size of 263 nm, polydispersity index < 0.2, the zeta potential of -37 mV, and RZ encapsulation efficiency of 89 %. The NPR showed sustained release of RZ for 48 h with release percentages of 95 and 97 % at neutral and slightly acidic pH, respectively. Regarding in vitro antiherpetic activity, the optimized NPR showed a selectivity index for HSV-1 of ≈16 and for HSV-2 of 13.

Polymeric nanoparticles for the delivery of Sonoran desert propolis: Synthesis, characterization and antiproliferative activity on cancer cells

Sonoran propolis (SP) exerts remarkable biological activities attributed to its polyphenolic composition, mostly described as poplar-type flavonoids. It is known that polyphenols present low bioavailability derived of their molecular weight, glycosylation level, metabolic conversion, as well as interaction with the intestinal microbiota, affording limitations for possible in vivo applications. The aim of this work was to synthesize Poly-(lactide-co-glycolide) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles for encapsulation of SP, as a matrix to increase solubility of their polyphenolic compounds and improve delivery, for the evaluation of its antiproliferative activity on cancer cells. The Sonoran propolis-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (SP-PLGA NPs) were synthesized (by nanoprecipitation), and their physicochemical parameters were determined (size, morphology, zeta potential, stability, and drug release). Additionally, the antiproliferative activity of SP-PLGA nanoparticles was evaluated in vitro against murine (M12.C3.F6) and human (HeLa) cancer cell lines, including a non-cancer human cell line (ARPE-19) as control. SP-PLGA NPs presented a mean size of 152.6 ± 7.1 nm with an average negative charge of - 21.2 ± 0.7 mV. The encapsulation yield of SP into PLGA system was approximately 68.2 ± 6.0% with an in vitro release of 45% of propolis content at 48 h. SP-PLGA NPs presented antiproliferative activity against both cancer cell lines tested, with lower IC₅₀ values in M12.C3.F6 and HeLa cell lines (7.8 ± 0.4 and 3.8 ± 0.4 μg/mL, respectively) compared to SP (24.0 ± 4.3 and 7.4 ± 0.4 μg/mL, respectively). In contrast, the IC₅₀ of SP-PLGA NPs and SP against ARPE-19 was higher than 50 µg/mL. Cancer cells treated with SP and SP-PLGA NPs presented morphological features characteristic of apoptosis (cellular shrinkage and membrane blebs), as well as elongated cells, effect previously reported for SP, meanwhile, no morphological changes were observed with ARPE-19 cells. The obtained delivery system demonstrates appropriate encapsulation characteristics and antiproliferative activity to be used in the field of nanomedicine, therefore SP could be potentially used in antitumoral in vivo assays upon its encapsulation into PLGA nanoparticles.

Can We Use Ginkgo biloba Extract to Treat Alzheimer’s Disease? Lessons from Preclinical and Clinical Studies

(1) Background: Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) has been widely used to treat central nervous system and cardiovascular diseases. Accumulating evidence has revealed the therapeutic potential of GBE against AD; however, no systematic evaluation has been performed; (2) Methods: a total of 17 preclinical studies and 20 clinical trials assessing the therapeutic effects of GBE against AD were identified from electronic databases. The data in the reports were extracted to conduct a meta-analysis of the AD-related pathological features or symptoms; (3) Results: For the preclinical reports, 45 animals treated with GBE, in six studies, were subjected to cognitive function assessments by the Morris water maze. GBE was shown to reduce the escape latencies in several studies, in both rats and mice (I2 > 70%, p < 0.005). For the clinical trials, eight trials, including 2100 individuals, were conducted. The results show that GBE improved the SKT and ADAS-Cog scores in early-stage AD patients after high doses and long-term administration; (4) Conclusions: GBE displayed generally consistent anti-AD effects in animal experiments, and it might improve AD symptoms in early-stage AD patients after high doses and long-term administration. A lack of sample size calculations and the poor quality of the methods are two obvious limitations of the studies. Nevertheless, the preclinical and clinical data suggest that further large-scale clinical trials may be needed in order to examine the effects of long-term GEB administration on early-stage AD.

Application of the combinatorial approaches of medicinal and aromatic plants with nanotechnology and its impacts on healthcare

BACKGROUND

Medicinal and aromatic plants are natural raw materials. Since ancient times these herbal materials are being commonly used as herbal drugs, food products, and cosmetics. The phytomolecules isolated from the medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are in high demand specifically in drug industries. However, these phytomolecules have certain limitations of low absorption, high toxicity, and other side effects, bioavailability and efficacy. These limitations may be overcome by using nanotechnological tools. The plant extract or essential oil of MAPs are also useful in the synthesis of nanoparticles. In future this combinatorial application of MAPs and nanotechnology would be advantageous in the healthcare area.

METHODS

Literature search was performed using databases like Pubmed, Scopus and Google Scholar with the keywords "nanoparticles," "phytomolecules," "medicinal and aromatic plants" and "green synthesis of nanoparticles" in the text.

RESULT

Phytomolecules of medicinal and aromatic plants like curcumin, camptothecin, thymol, and eugenol have certain limitations of bioavailability, efficacy, and solubility. It limits its biological activity and therefore application in the biomedical area. The increment in the biological activity and sustained delivery was observed after the encapsulation of these potent phytomolecules encapsulated in the nanocarriers. Besides, MAPs and/or their molecules/oils mediate the synthesis of metal nanocarriers with less toxicity.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights the impact of the combination of the MAPs with the nanotechnology along with the challenges. It would be an effective technique for the efficient delivery of different phytomolecules and also in the synthesis of novel nano-materials, which escalates the opportunity of exploration of potential molecules of MAPs. Graphical abstract Graphical representation of the combinatorial approach of MAPs and nanotechnology.

Plants Extracts Loaded in Nanocarriers: An Emergent Formulating Approach

Over the millennia, plants have represented for Humankind the main source of food, but also a vast resource to maintain health, for prophylactic properties or to cure human and animal diseases. Presently, between 65 and 80% of populations in developing countries use medicinal plants as therapeutic remedies for their primary healthcare and in Europe and USA there is an increasing demand of botanical products both on the form of food supplements and herbal medicinal products. Botanicals on the market are mainly based on traditional (infusions or decoctions), conventional (using organic solvents) and innovative (supercritical CO2 or subcritical water) extracts but there is an increasing demand of essential oils for aromatherapy. Conversely, the clinical use of many extracts is limited due to the need of repeated administrations or high doses because of low hydrophilicity and intrinsic dissolution rate(s), or physical/ chemical instability. Other limits are low absorption, poor pharmacokinetics and bioavailability, scarce biodistribution, first pass metabolism, trivial penetration and accumulation in the organs of the body. In the case of essential oils, the high volatility and instability are further limitations. Nowadays, the design and production of appropriate drug delivery systems, in particular nanosized ones (between 50 and 300 nm), have already entered into clinical use and can offer an advanced approach to optimized the therapeutic efficacy of extracts and essential oils. A successful drug carrier system should have optimal drug loading and release properties, a long shelf life, and exert a much higher therapeutic efficacy as well as lower side effects. Polymeric nanoparticles and lipid based-nanocarriers including micelles, vesicles, nanocochleates, micro- and nanoemulsions represent successful examples of extract nanoformulations overcoming these limitations. This review reports on some paradigmatic success stories of extract and EO nanoformulations with remarkable advantages over conventional formulations, which include increase of solubility, stability, permeation and bioavailability, sustained delivery. Paradigmatic examples include formulations of extracts from Vitex agnus-castus, Sylibum marianum, Phyllanthus amarus, Ginkgo biloba, Panax notoginseng, Hypericum perforatum and thyme essential oil.

Ginkgo biloba extracts-loaded starch nano-spheres: Preparation, characterization, and in vitro release kinetics

Ginkgo as a promising edible material and herbal medicine has received much attention due to its abundant starch contents and functional ingredient ginkgo biloba extracts (GBEs). Many foreign scholars suggest that GBEs can effectively ameliorate the symptoms of mild memory impairment and Alzheimer's dementia. However, an insurmountable problem with application of the GBEs is its low bioavailability, which restricts its application in vivo. Considering the biocompatibility between GBEs and starch, we have prepared ginkgo and corn starch-based nano-carriers, and thereby loaded GBEs onto starch nano-spheres (SNPs) by nanoprecipitation. Compared with unloaded SNPs (201-250nm), the mean sizes of the monodispersed and spherical GBEs-loaded SNPs were 255-396nm. Moreover, the loading amounts of GBEs onto ginkgo, and corn SNPs were 0.661-1.045, and 0.560mg/mg, respectively. In addition, in artificial gastric and intestinal juices, the GBEs-loaded SNPs exhibited a better sustained release than free GBEs.

In vitro antiherpes effect of C-glycosyl flavonoid enriched fraction of Cecropia glaziovii encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles

In this work is reported a novel and promising approach for the preparation of C-glycosylflavonoid enriched fraction of Cecropia glaziovii (EFF-Cg) loaded PLGA nanoparticles (NP) with antiherpes properties. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and to compare the effect of two nonionic surfactants (poloxamer 188 (PLU) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)), and also an emulsion stabilized by solid particles of cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) in place of surfactants. The characterization of these nanoparticles was in terms of size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, morphology, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), loading capacity and percent yield. Since TGA analysis revealed thermo stability especially for NP-PLU, this formulation was selected for the evaluation of drug release profile, cytotoxicity and antiherpes activity. The drug delivery profile demonstrated a sustained release through the polymer structure and a significant reduction of the polymer molecular weight at 21-day period. The cytotoxicity of these nanoparticles was determined on Vero cells, and the selected formulation did not exhibit cytotoxicity even at the highest tested concentration. The results demonstrated a potential antiherpetic effect of the EFF-Cg loaded NP at 48h of testing. In summary, EFF-Cg loaded NP exhibited a promising system for the effective drug delivery in the treatment of herpes infections.

Nanotechnology: an effective tool for enhancing bioavailability and bioactivity of phytomedicine

To achieve the desired therapeutic objective, the drug product must deliver the active drug at an optimal rate and amount. By proper biopharmaceutic design, the rate and extent of drug absorption (also called as bioavailability) or the systemic delivery of drugs to the body can be varied from rapid and complete absorption to slow and sustained absorption depending upon the desired therapeutic objective. Phytomedicine have served as the foundation for a larger fraction of the current pharmacopeia. But the delivery of phytomedicine is always problematic due to poor aqueous solubility, poor permeation, low systemic availability, instability and extensive first pass metabolism. Current review will discuss in detail about how nanotechnology can enhance the bioavilability and bioactivity of the phytomedicine.

25th anniversary article: Dynamic interfaces for responsive encapsulation systems

Encapsulation systems are urgently needed both as micrometer and sub-micrometer capsules for active chemicals' delivery, to encapsulate biological objects and capsules immobilized on surfaces for a wide variety of advanced applications. Methods for encapsulation, prolonged storage and controllable release are discussed in this review. Formation of stimuli responsive systems via layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly, as well as via mobile chemical bonding (hydrogen bonds, chemisorptions) and formation of special dynamic stoppers are presented. The most essential advances of the systems presented are multifunctionality and responsiveness to a multitude of stimuli - the possibility of formation of multi-modal systems. Specific examples of advanced applications - drug delivery, diagnostics, tissue engineering, lab-on-chip and organ-on-chip, bio-sensors, membranes, templates for synthesis, optical systems, and antifouling, self-healing materials and coatings - are provided. Finally, we try to outline emerging developments.

Advances in Integrative Nanomedicine for Improving Infectious Disease Treatment in Public Health

INTRODUCTION

Infectious diseases present public health challenges worldwide. An emerging integrative approach to treating infectious diseases is using nanoparticle (NP) forms of traditional and alternative medicines. Advantages of nanomedicine delivery methods include better disease targeting, especially for intracellular pathogens, ability to cross membranes and enter cells, longer duration drug action, reduced side effects, and cost savings from lower doses.

METHODS

We searched Pubmed articles in English with keywords related to nanoparticles and nanomedicine. Nanotechnology terms were also combined with keywords for drug delivery, infectious diseases, herbs, antioxidants, homeopathy, and adaptation.

RESULTS

NPs are very small forms of material substances, measuring 1-100 nanometers along at least one dimension. Compared with bulk forms, NPs' large ratio of surface-area-to-volume confers increased reactivity and adsorptive capacity, with unique electromagnetic, chemical, biological, and quantum properties. Nanotechnology uses natural botanical agents for green manufacturing of less toxic NPs.

DISCUSSION

Nanoparticle herbs and nutriceuticals can treat infections via improved bioavailability and antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects. Recent studies demonstrate that homeopathic medicines may contain source and/or silica nanoparticles because of their traditional manufacturing processes. Homeopathy, as a form of nanomedicine, has a promising history of treating epidemic infectious diseases, including malaria, leptospirosis and HIV/AIDS, in addition to acute upper respiratory infections. Adaptive changes in the host's complex networks underlie effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Nanomedicine is integrative, blending modern technology with natural products to reduce toxicity and support immune function. Nanomedicine using traditional agents from alternative systems of medicine can facilitate progress in integrative public health approaches to infectious diseases.