Elemanolide dimers from seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica

Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench: A Review on Ethnomedicinal, Phytochemical, Pharmacological and Toxicological Profile

Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench is a popular medicinal plant with a long history of use in several traditional remedies to cure a variety of diseases including; its effect on the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, metabolism, kidneys, gynecology, skin diseases, and general health. The present review aims to provide the latest, organized information on toxicological, pharmacological, phytochemical, and ethnomedicinal applications of Baccharoides anthelmintica. For this; several well-known searchable websites (search engines) like; Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus-Elsevier, Taylor & Francis, Springer, and DOAJ, were used to empirically investigate the knowledge of this useful medicinal plant. Based on previous studies, the pharmacological action of B. anthelmintica is due to various secondary metabolites including alkaloids, terpenoids, lignans, steroids, and other phytoconstituents. Hence, the present study recorded 225 phytochemicals obtained from different parts of the plant, where the steroids and derivatives (48), terpenes and sesquiterpenes (46), flavonoids and derivatives (41), fatty acids and derivatives (40), phenolic acids (12), triterpenes (11), chalcones (06), diterpenes (01) and miscellaneous (20) were reported. The present review also covered the pharmacological importance, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic action, liver disease, anticancer potential, anti-HIV, antiosteoporotic action, antitoxic action, skin disorder, wound healing and immunomodulatory activity, systemic infection, and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases etc. The review concluded that B. anthelmintica has several pharmacological activities, which were due to the presence of secondary metabolites present in it, and thus indicates the importance of medicinal value of this plant. Hence, B. anthelmintica may be a good source for developing a lead molecule in the process of new drug discovery and development. More study is required to determine the pharmacokinetics, mechanism of action, long-term toxicology testing, safe dosage, and possible interactions with other herbs/drugs.

Antibacterial stigmastane-type steroids and other constituents from the leaves of Vernonia glabra (Steetz) Vatke (Asteraceae)

Two new stigmastane steroids (1 and 2) were isolated from the methanol extract of the leaves of Vernonia glabra, together with seventeen known compounds (3-19) including one fatty acid, four triterpenoids, four steroids, one trinitropropanoyl glucoside, and seven flavonoids. The structures of compounds 1 and 2 were assigned based on their IR, NMR and MS data, and by comparison with literature values. The MeOH extract, its fractions and isolated compounds were subjected to in vitro antibacterial assay against two Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923 and Streptococcus pneumoniae ATCC49619) and two Gram-negative (Escherichia coli ATCC8739 and Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC10031) bacteria, using broth microdilution method. The extract and fractions exhibited (16 ≤ MIC ≤ 512 μg/mL) antibacterial activities. The isolated and tested compounds were also active (16 ≤ MIC ≤ 128 μg/mL) against the four pathogenic bacteria, with compound 2 being the most active and E. coli, the most sensitive microorganism.

Oxygen heterocyclic Diels-Alder-Type sesquiterpenoid dimers from Vernonia anthelmintica

Eleven undescribed oxygen heterocyclic Diels-Alder-Type sesquiterpenoid dimers, vernodalidimer I-K and M-T, along with a known one, vernodalidimer B were isolated from the seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica. The structures of them were elucidated based on 1D, 2D-NMR experiments and HRESIMS. The absolute configurations of vernodalidimer I-K and M-T were determined by comparison of their experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism spectra. Cytotoxicity of the isolates against HCT-15, PC-3, A549, and HeLa cell lines were tested. Vernodalidimer K and Q exhibited significant cytotoxic activity against HCT-15 cell line with IC₅₀ values of 9.8 ± 5.4 μM and 9.4 ± 1.3 μM, respectively.

Characterization of constituents by UPLC-MS and the influence of extraction methods of the seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica willd.: extraction, characterization, antioxidant and enzyme modulatory activities

Vernonia anthelmintica Willd (VA) is a popular medicinal plant used in local and traditional medicine to manage various disorders. In order to explore the phytochemical profile, antioxidant and enzyme modulatory activities of extracts prepared from the seeds of VA, different extraction methodologies, including modern (accelerated-ASE, ultrasound-UAE, and tissue smashing-TSE extractions) and traditional (maceration and Soxhlet) extractions, were employed and their effects on the activities of the extracts were investigated. The chemical compounds of the extracts were qualitatively analyzed by ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Orbitrap-MS) technique. Among them, 11 compounds were undoubtedly identified by comparison with reference substance, while 13 compounds were tentatively identified by comparison with literature data, including 8 phenolic acids, 14 flavonoids and 2 esters were identified in the extracts. Additionally, the quantitative analysis found that ASE showed the highest extraction efficiency. The antioxidant activity was determined in vitro via six standard assays. Two key enzymes related to the diseases of vitiligo (tyrosinase) and type II diabetes (α-glucosidase) were adopted to assess the activity of VA extracts against them. All extracts showed potent antioxidant ability with a predominance for that obtained by ASE, which corroborated with the high phenolic (22.62 ± 0.23 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g extract) and flavonoid contents (68.85 ± 0.25 mg rutin equivalent (RE)/g extract). The extracts obtained by ASE, UAE and SE could increase the tyrosinase activity and all the extracts displayed remarkable inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase. This study demonstrated that the VA extracts obtained by novel extraction techniques such as ASE, could be considered as a positive candidate to be utilized by the food and medical industries, not only for obtaining bioactive compounds to be used as natural antioxidants, but possibly also for its health benefits for therapeutic bio-product development.

Chemical Profiling of Kaliziri Injection and Quantification of Six Caffeoyl Quinic Acids in Beagle Plasma by LC-MS/MS

Vitiligo is a stubborn multifactorial skin disease with a prevalence of approximately 1% in the global population. Kaliziri, the seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd., is a well-known traditional Uyghur medicine for the treatment of vitiligo. Kaliziri injections is a Chinese-marketed treatment approved by the China Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of vitiligo. The significant effects of Kaliziri injection have been thoroughly studied. However, chemical components studies and plasma quantification studies are lacking for Kaliziri injection. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid quadrupole orbitrap mass spectrometry was employed to comprehensively characterize the caffeoyl quinic acid derivatives present in Kaliziri injection. Based on accurate mass measurements, key fragmental ions and comparisons with reference standards, 60 caffeoyl quinic acid derivatives were identified in Kaliziri injections, including caffeoyl quinic acids, coumaroyl caffeoyl quinic acids, dicaffeoyl quinic acids, feruloyl caffeoyl quinic acids, and dicaffeoyl quinic acid hexosides. Moreover, an HPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the quantitative analysis of 5-caffeoyl quinic acid, 4-caffeoyl quinic acid, 1,3-dicaffeoyl quinic acid, 3,4-dicaffeoyl quinic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoyl quinic acid and 4,5-dicaffeoyl quinic acid in beagle plasma. The quantitative HPLC-MS/MS method was applied to quantify these six major caffeoyl quinic acids in beagle plasma after the subcutaneous administration of Kaliziri injection. All of the six analytes reached their peak plasma of concentrations within 30 min.

Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd.: An ethnomedicinal, phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. (Asteraceae; Purple Fleabane) has a long history of traditional use for the management of several disorders related to skin, central nervous system, kidney, gynecology, gastrointestinal, metabolism, and general health. The review aims to provide updated systematic information on ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological uses, toxicity studies, and patented formulations of V. anthelmintica. This review will not only help to identify the research gaps but also provide information to the scientific community for future research requisites.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Empirical searches were conducted on the medicinal plant via significant search engines like Google Scholar, Scopus-Elsevier, Medline, SciFinder, Web of Science, Directory of Open Access Journal (DOAJ) from inception until June 2018. Besides, references from local literature, books, and non-English journals were also included.

RESULTS

Scientific reports revealed that V. anthelmintica is a popular medicinal plant used in local and traditional medicine to manage various disorders. Phytochemical studies have identified 193 chemical constituents amongst which steroids form the most abundant class, followed by terpenes. Crude extracts and isolated compounds exhibited various pharmacological activities such as anti-vitiligo, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antipsoriatic, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, analgesic, antipyretic, antioxidant, antiparasitic, antimicrobial, antiproliferative, immunomodulatory and also helped in managing pulmonary fibrosis and promoting the synthesis of estrogen. Approximately 45 chemical constituents were found to be biologically active. There are only three toxicity reports and 37 patents available on V. anthelmintica.

CONCLUSION

The review suggests that V. anthelmintica act as a promising source for drug development. The potential uses of V. anthelmintica are owing to the presence of phenolic acids, steroids, fatty acids, and terpenes in its composition. However, further studies are needed to explore the exact mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, chronic toxicological studies, safe dose consumption, and possible interactions with other herbs.

Natural disesquiterpenoids: an update

This review highlights the progress on the isolation, bioactivity, biogenesis and total synthesis of dimeric sesquiterpenoids since 2010.

Vernodalidimer L, a sesquiterpene lactone dimer from Vernonia extensa and anti-tumor effects of vernodalin, vernolepin, and vernolide on HepG2 liver cancer cells

Vernonia extensa, known as "Phim Phai Lin" in Thai, is distributed in most regions of Thailand. The plant has been used in Ayurveda and traditionally used to treat malaria and cancer, and possesses several sesquiterpene lactones. This study aimed to investigate and identify the active constituents by bioactivity-based analysis, as well as to evaluate the cytotoxic activity of V. extensa by MTT or XTT assays in ten cancer cell lines (Liver HepG2 and S102; Bile duct HuCCA-1; Leukemia HL-60 and MOLT-3; Lung A549 and H69AR; Breast MDA-MB-231 and T47D; Cervical HeLa). Bioactivity-guided fractionation and semi-preparative HPLC purification were used to separate the bioactive constituents. Apoptosis-inducing activity and cell cycle inhibitory effect of selected active compounds were determined on HepG2 cells by flow cytometric analysis. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the CH₂Cl₂ extract and chemical investigation of the cytotoxic fractions led to the isolation of a new sesquiterpenoid pseudo-dimer named vernodalidimer L, together with eight known sesquiterpenoids from the aerial part of V. extensa. The structures of the isolates were elucidated based on spectroscopic analysis, including 1D and 2D NMR and HRMS. Vernolide has potent broad-spectrum cytotoxicity with IC₅₀ values in the range of 0.91-13.84 μM, against all ten cancer cell lines. The annexin-V flow cytometric analysis showed that vernodalin, vernolepin, and vernolide induced apoptosis on HepG2 cells in a dose dependent manner and these effects correlated with G2/M phase cell cycle arrest. Our results indicated that vernodalin, vernolepin, and vernolide have potential to be used as lead compounds in the development of a therapeutic natural product for treatment of liver cancer.

The Effect of Volatile Oil from Vernonia anthelmintica Seeds on Melanin Synthesis in B16 Cells and Its Chemical Analysis by GC-QTOF-MS

Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. seeds have been used in folk medicine for the treatment of leukoderma in Xinjiang, China, for more than 300 years. The promoting activities of its volatile oil (AVO) in melanogenesis and its chemical composition were investigated in this paper. The bioactivities of AVO were examined by melanin synthesis and tyrosinase activity assay in B16 cells. Using GC-QTOF-MS technology, each compound of AVO contains a single separated peak in GC and the retention indices of every GC peak were calculated by the retention times of C7~C30 n-alkanes that were injected at the same chromatographic conditions. Then each individual peak was identified by comparing its mass spectrum with the MS library (NIST 14). As a result, AVO increased the melanin content and tyrosinase activity in a dose-dependent manner at concentrations of 10-30μg·mL⁻¹. The 64 compounds were identified in AVO which occupied 95.15% of total peak area in GC. They mainly contained caryophyllene (23.73%), sabinene (18.15%), α-thujene (6.57%), thymol (5.29%), 4-epi-α-acoradiene (4.98%), limonene (4.92%), anethole (3.44%), etc. According to the results the AVO can promote melanogenesis and upregulate tyrosinase activity in B16 cells.

Three new elemanolides from the seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica

Three new elemanolides, named vernonilides D (1), E (2), and F (3), along with four known sesquiterpenoids, including two elemanolides (4, 5), a guaianolide (6), and a germacranolide (7) were isolated from the seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica. The structures of them were elucidated based on 1D and 2D NMR experiments and comparison with published data. Cytotoxicity of the compounds against four human tumor cell lines was assayed. 6 showed strongly inhibitory effect against HCT-15 and PC-3 cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 0.56 and 0.69 μM, respectively. The new compounds showed moderate cytotoxicity against four cell lines with IC₅₀ values ranging from 9.1 to 28.1 μM.

Sesquiterpene dimers from the roots of Chloranthus holostegius with moderate anti-inflammatory activity

Eight lindenane dimers, chololactones A-H, along with two known compounds, were isolated from the roots of Chloranthus holostegius. Their structures were elucidated using 1D/2D NMR and HRESIMS, and their absolute configurations were determined using the ECD exciton chirality method. All isolates were tested for inhibitory effects on the NO production of the liposaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages, and showed moderate activity with IC₅₀ values at 3.5-35.4 μM.

New sesquiterpene lactones, vernonilides A and B, from the seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica in Uyghur and their antiproliferative activities

A new guaianolide sesquiterpene lactone, vernonilide A (1), and a new elemanolide sesquiterpene lactone, vernonilide B (2), were isolated from the seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica, together with three known elemanolide sesquiterpene lactones (3-5). The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated on the basis of physicochemical evidences. Compounds 1, 3, and 4 showed strong antiproliferative activities against three human cancer cell lines (A549, HeLa, and MDA-MB-231), with IC50 values ranging from 0.10 to 1.00μM. In addition, 5 exhibited significant antiproliferative activities against HeLa and MDA-MB-231 cells, with IC50 values ranging from 1.90 to 2.20μM. The antiproliferative activities of the acetyl derivatives 6 and 7 prepared from 4 and 3, respectively, against the three cell lines were 4-10-fold weaker than the original activities.