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Lara-Moreno A, Merchán F, Morillo E, Zampolli J, Di Gennaro P, Villaverde J. Genome analysis for the identification of genes involved in phenanthrene biodegradation pathway in Stenotrophomonas indicatrix CPHE1. Phenanthrene mineralization in soils assisted by integrated approaches. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1158177. [PMID: 37214282 PMCID: PMC10192627 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1158177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Phenanthrene (PHE) is a highly toxic compound, widely present in soils. For this reason, it is essential to remove PHE from the environment. Stenotrophomonas indicatrix CPHE1 was isolated from an industrial soil contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and was sequenced to identify the PHE degrading genes. Dioxygenase, monooxygenase, and dehydrogenase gene products annotated in S. indicatrix CPHE1 genome were clustered into different trees with reference proteins. Moreover, S. indicatrix CPHE1 whole-genome sequences were compared to genes of PAHs-degrading bacteria retrieved from databases and literature. On these basis, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis pointed out that cysteine dioxygenase (cysDO), biphenyl-2,3-diol 1,2-dioxygenase (bphC), and aldolase hydratase (phdG) were expressed only in the presence of PHE. Therefore, different techniques have been designed to improve the PHE mineralization process in five PHE artificially contaminated soils (50 mg kg-1), including biostimulation, adding a nutrient solution (NS), bioaugmentation, inoculating S. indicatrix CPHE1 which was selected for its PHE-degrading genes, and the use of 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPBCD) as a bioavailability enhancer. High percentages of PHE mineralization were achieved for the studied soils. Depending on the soil, different treatments resulted to be successful; in the case of a clay loam soil, the best strategy was the inoculation of S. indicatrix CPHE1 and NS (59.9% mineralized after 120 days). In sandy soils (CR and R soils) the highest percentage of mineralization was achieved in presence of HPBCD and NS (87.3% and 61.3%, respectively). However, the combination of CPHE1 strain, HPBCD, and NS showed to be the most efficient strategy for sandy and sandy loam soils (LL and ALC soils showed 35% and 74.6%, respectively). The results indicated a high degree of correlation between gene expression and the rates of mineralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Lara-Moreno
- Department of Agrochemistry, Environmental Microbiology and Soil Conservation, Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Seville, Spanish National Research Council (IRNAS-CSIC), Seville, Spain
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Francisco Merchán
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Esmeralda Morillo
- Department of Agrochemistry, Environmental Microbiology and Soil Conservation, Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Seville, Spanish National Research Council (IRNAS-CSIC), Seville, Spain
| | - Jessica Zampolli
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Patrizia Di Gennaro
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Jaime Villaverde
- Department of Agrochemistry, Environmental Microbiology and Soil Conservation, Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Seville, Spanish National Research Council (IRNAS-CSIC), Seville, Spain
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2
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Evolution of enzyme functionality in the flavin-containing monooxygenases. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1042. [PMID: 36823138 PMCID: PMC9950137 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36756-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the molecular mechanisms of adaptation in biology, enzyme functional diversification is indispensable. By allowing organisms to expand their catalytic repertoires and adopt fundamentally different chemistries, animals can harness or eliminate new-found substances and xenobiotics that they are exposed to in new environments. Here, we explore the flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs) that are essential for xenobiotic detoxification. Employing a paleobiochemistry approach in combination with enzymology techniques we disclose the set of historical substitutions responsible for the family's functional diversification in tetrapods. Remarkably, a few amino acid replacements differentiate an ancestral multi-tasking FMO into a more specialized monooxygenase by modulating the oxygenating flavin intermediate. Our findings substantiate an ongoing premise that enzymatic function hinges on a subset of residues that is not limited to the active site core.
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Kamiński K, Ludwiczak J, Jasiński M, Bukala A, Madaj R, Szczepaniak K, Dunin-Horkawicz S. Rossmann-toolbox: a deep learning-based protocol for the prediction and design of cofactor specificity in Rossmann fold proteins. Brief Bioinform 2021; 23:6375059. [PMID: 34571541 PMCID: PMC8769691 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbab371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The Rossmann fold enzymes are involved in essential biochemical pathways such as nucleotide and amino acid metabolism. Their functioning relies on interaction with cofactors, small nucleoside-based compounds specifically recognized by a conserved βαβ motif shared by all Rossmann fold proteins. While Rossmann methyltransferases recognize only a single cofactor type, the S-adenosylmethionine, the oxidoreductases, depending on the family, bind nicotinamide (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) or flavin-based (flavin adenine dinucleotide) cofactors. In this study, we showed that despite its short length, the βαβ motif unambiguously defines the specificity towards the cofactor. Following this observation, we trained two complementary deep learning models for the prediction of the cofactor specificity based on the sequence and structural features of the βαβ motif. A benchmark on two independent test sets, one containing βαβ motifs bearing no resemblance to those of the training set, and the other comprising 38 experimentally confirmed cases of rational design of the cofactor specificity, revealed the nearly perfect performance of the two methods. The Rossmann-toolbox protocols can be accessed via the webserver at https://lbs.cent.uw.edu.pl/rossmann-toolbox and are available as a Python package at https://github.com/labstructbioinf/rossmann-toolbox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamil Kamiński
- Laboratory of Structural Bioinformatics, Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jan Ludwiczak
- Laboratory of Structural Bioinformatics, Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland.,Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Pasteura 3, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Jasiński
- Laboratory of Structural Bioinformatics, Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Adriana Bukala
- Laboratory of Structural Bioinformatics, Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Rafal Madaj
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363, Lodz, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Szczepaniak
- Laboratory of Structural Bioinformatics, Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Stanisław Dunin-Horkawicz
- Laboratory of Structural Bioinformatics, Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
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4
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The adaptive landscape of a metallo-enzyme is shaped by environment-dependent epistasis. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3867. [PMID: 34162839 PMCID: PMC8222346 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23943-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymes can evolve new catalytic activity when environmental changes present them with novel substrates. Despite this seemingly straightforward relationship, factors other than the direct catalytic target can also impact adaptation. Here, we characterize the catalytic activity of a recently evolved bacterial methyl-parathion hydrolase for all possible combinations of the five functionally relevant mutations under eight different laboratory conditions (in which an alternative divalent metal is supplemented). The resultant adaptive landscapes across this historical evolutionary transition vary in terms of both the number of “fitness peaks” as well as the genotype(s) at which they are found as a result of genotype-by-environment interactions and environment-dependent epistasis. This suggests that adaptive landscapes may be fluid and molecular adaptation is highly contingent not only on obvious factors (such as catalytic targets), but also on less obvious secondary environmental factors that can direct it towards distinct outcomes. The metaphor of an adaptive landscape is presented quantitatively by looking at molecular adaptations and their catalytic consequences in a recently evolved bacterial enzyme. The study identifies both genotype-by-environment interactions and environment-dependent epistasis as factors that can alter the fitness of functional mutations.
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Overview of structurally homologous flavoprotein oxidoreductases containing the low M r thioredoxin reductase-like fold - A functionally diverse group. Arch Biochem Biophys 2021; 702:108826. [PMID: 33684359 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2021.108826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Structural studies show that enzymes have a limited number of unique folds, although structurally related enzymes have evolved to perform a large variety of functions. In this review, we have focused on enzymes containing the low molecular weight thioredoxin reductase (low Mr TrxR) fold. This fold consists of two domains, both containing a three-layer ββα sandwich Rossmann-like fold, serving as flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and, in most cases, pyridine nucleotide (NAD(P)H) binding-domains. Based on a search of the Protein Data Bank for all published structures containing the low Mr TrxR-like fold, we here present a comprehensive overview of enzymes with this structural architecture. These range from TrxR-like ferredoxin/flavodoxin NAD(P)+ oxidoreductases, through glutathione reductase, to NADH peroxidase. Some enzymes are solely composed of the low Mr TrxR-like fold, while others contain one or two additional domains. In this review, we give a detailed description of selected enzymes containing only the low Mr TrxR-like fold, however, catalyzing a diversity of chemical reactions. Our overview of this structurally similar, yet functionally distinct group of flavoprotein oxidoreductases highlights the fascinating and increasing number of studies describing the diversity among these enzymes, especially during the last decade(s).
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Parshin PD, Pometun AA, Martysuk UA, Kleymenov SY, Atroshenko DL, Pometun EV, Savin SS, Tishkov VI. Effect of His 6-tag Position on the Expression and Properties of Phenylacetone Monooxygenase from Thermobifida fusca. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2020; 85:575-582. [PMID: 32571187 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297920050065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Phenylacetone monooxygenase (EC 1.14.13.92, PAMО) catalyzes oxidation of ketones with molecular oxygen and NADPH with the formation of esters. PAMО is a promising enzyme for biotechnological processes. In this work, we generated genetic constructs coding for PAMO from Thermobifida fusca, containing N- or C-terminal His6-tags (PAMO N and PAMO C, respectively), as well as PAMO L with the His6-tag attached to the enzyme C-terminus via a 19-a.a. spacer. All PAMO variants were expressed as catalytically active proteins in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) cells; however, the expression level of PAMO N was 3 to 5 times higher than for the other two enzymes. The catalytic constants (kcat) of PAMO C and PAMO L were similar to that published for PAMO L produced in a different expression system; the catalytic constant for PAMO N was slightly lower (by 15%). The values of Michaelis constants with NADPH for all PAMО variants were in agreement within the published data for PAMO L (within the experimental error); however, the KM for benzylacetone was several times higher. Thermal inactivation studies and differential scanning calorimetry demonstrated that the thermal stability of PAMO N was 3 to 4 times higher compared to that of the enzymes with the C-terminal His6-tag.
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Affiliation(s)
- P D Parshin
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow, 119234, Russia.,Innovations and High Technologies MSU Ltd., Moscow, 109451, Russia
| | - A A Pometun
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow, 119234, Russia. .,Innovations and High Technologies MSU Ltd., Moscow, 109451, Russia.,Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - U A Martysuk
- Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia, Moscow, 125047, Russia
| | - S Yu Kleymenov
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia.,Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119334, Russia
| | - D L Atroshenko
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow, 119234, Russia.,Innovations and High Technologies MSU Ltd., Moscow, 109451, Russia.,Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - E V Pometun
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - S S Savin
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow, 119234, Russia.,Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - V I Tishkov
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow, 119234, Russia. .,Innovations and High Technologies MSU Ltd., Moscow, 109451, Russia.,Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
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7
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Fürst MJLJ, Gran-Scheuch A, Aalbers FS, Fraaije MW. Baeyer–Villiger Monooxygenases: Tunable Oxidative Biocatalysts. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b03396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian J. L. J. Fürst
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen 9747AG, The Netherlands
| | - Alejandro Gran-Scheuch
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen 9747AG, The Netherlands
- Department of Chemical and Bioprocesses Engineering, School of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Avenida Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago 7820436, Chile
| | - Friso S. Aalbers
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen 9747AG, The Netherlands
| | - Marco W. Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen 9747AG, The Netherlands
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8
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Chánique AM, Parra LP. Protein Engineering for Nicotinamide Coenzyme Specificity in Oxidoreductases: Attempts and Challenges. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:194. [PMID: 29491854 PMCID: PMC5817062 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidoreductases are ubiquitous enzymes that catalyze an extensive range of chemical reactions with great specificity, efficiency, and selectivity. Most oxidoreductases are nicotinamide cofactor-dependent enzymes with a strong preference for NADP or NAD. Because these coenzymes differ in stability, bioavailability and costs, the enzyme preference for a specific coenzyme is an important issue for practical applications. Different approaches for the manipulation of coenzyme specificity have been reported, with different degrees of success. Here we present various attempts for the switching of nicotinamide coenzyme preference in oxidoreductases by protein engineering. This review covers 103 enzyme engineering studies from 82 articles and evaluates the accomplishments in terms of coenzyme specificity and catalytic efficiency compared to wild type enzymes of different classes. We analyzed different protein engineering strategies and related them with the degree of success in inverting the cofactor specificity. In general, catalytic activity is compromised when coenzyme specificity is reversed, however when switching from NAD to NADP, better results are obtained. In most of the cases, rational strategies were used, predominantly with loop exchange generating the best results. In general, the tendency of removing acidic residues and incorporating basic residues is the strategy of choice when trying to change specificity from NAD to NADP, and vice versa. Computational strategies and algorithms are also covered as helpful tools to guide protein engineering strategies. This mini review aims to give a general introduction to the topic, giving an overview of tools and information to work in protein engineering for the reversal of coenzyme specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea M Chánique
- Department of Chemical and Bioprocesses Engineering, School of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Loreto P Parra
- Department of Chemical and Bioprocesses Engineering, School of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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9
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Abdelwahab H, Robinson R, Rodriguez P, Adly C, El-Sohaimy S, Sobrado P. Identification of structural determinants of NAD(P)H selectivity and lysine binding in lysine N(6)-monooxygenase. Arch Biochem Biophys 2016; 606:180-8. [PMID: 27503802 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
l-lysine (l-Lys) N(6)-monooxygenase (NbtG), from Nocardia farcinica, is a flavin-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the hydroxylation of l-Lys in the presence of oxygen and NAD(P)H in the biosynthetic pathway of the siderophore nocobactin. NbtG displays only a 3-fold preference for NADPH over NADH, different from well-characterized related enzymes, which are highly selective for NADPH. The structure of NbtG with bound NAD(P)(+) or l-Lys is currently not available. Herein, we present a mutagenesis study targeting M239, R301, and E216. These amino acids are conserved and located in either the NAD(P)H binding domain or the l-Lys binding pocket. M239R resulted in high production of hydrogen peroxide and little hydroxylation with no change in coenzyme selectivity. R301A caused a 300-fold decrease on kcat/Km value with NADPH but no change with NADH. E216Q increased the Km value for l-Lys by 30-fold with very little change on the kcat value or in the binding of NAD(P)H. These results suggest that R301 plays a major role in NADPH selectivity by interacting with the 2'-phosphate of the adenine-ribose moiety of NADPH, while E216 plays a role in l-Lys binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heba Abdelwahab
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, Damietta, 34517, Egypt
| | - Reeder Robinson
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Pedro Rodriguez
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Camelia Adly
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, Damietta, 34517, Egypt
| | - Sohby El-Sohaimy
- Department of Food Technology, Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications, Alexandria, 21934, Egypt
| | - Pablo Sobrado
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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10
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Jensen CN, Ali ST, Allen MJ, Grogan G. Exploring nicotinamide cofactor promiscuity in NAD(P)H-dependent flavin containing monooxygenases (FMOs) using natural variation within the phosphate binding loop. Structure and activity of FMOs from Cellvibrio sp. BR and Pseudomonas stutzeri NF13. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 109:191-198. [PMID: 25383040 PMCID: PMC4220118 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2014.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Revised: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/30/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Genes encoding ‘Type II FMOs’ CFMO and PSFMO were selected for diversity in the NADPH binding loop. CFMO and PSFMO were shown to both accept either NADH or NADPH as cofactor in the reduction of FAD. The activities with both NADPH and NADH have been evaluated in the oxidation of sulfide substrates. Structures of CFMO and PSFMO were solved, revealing the nature of the NADPH phosphate binding loop.
Flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs) catalyse asymmetric oxidation reactions that have potential for preparative organic synthesis, but most use the more expensive, phosphorylated nicotinamide cofactor NADPH to reduce FAD to FADH2 prior to formation of the (hydro)peroxy intermediate required for substrate oxygenation. A comparison of the structures of NADPH-dependent FMO from Methylophaga aminisulfidivorans (mFMO) and SMFMO from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, which is able to use both NADPH and NADH, suggested that the promiscuity of the latter enzyme may be due in part to the substitution of an Arg–Thr couple in the NADPH phosphate recognition site in mFMO, for a Gln–His couple in SMFMO (Jensen et al., 2012, Chembiochem, 13, 872–878). Natural variation within the phosphate binding region, and its influence on nicotinamide cofactor promiscuity, was explored through the cloning, expression, characterisation and structural studies of FMOs from Cellvibrio sp. BR (CFMO) and Pseudomonas stutzeri NF13 (PSFMO), which possess Thr–Ser and Gln–Glu in the putative phosphate recognition positions, respectively. CFMO and PSFMO displayed 5- and 1.5-fold greater activity, respectively, than SMFMO for the reduction of FAD with NADH, and were also cofactor promiscuous, displaying a ratio of activity with NADH:NADPH of 1.7:1 and 1:1.3, respectively. The structures of CFMO and PSFMO revealed the context of the phosphate binding loop in each case, and also clarified the structure of the mobile helix–loop–helix motif that appears to shield the FAD-binding pocket from bulk solvent in this class of FMOs, a feature that was absent from the structure of SMFMO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantel N Jensen
- York Structural Biology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Sohail T Ali
- Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, Plymouth PL1 3DH, UK
| | - Michael J Allen
- Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, Plymouth PL1 3DH, UK
| | - Gideon Grogan
- York Structural Biology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
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