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Xia Q, Huang Z, Zhang P, Bu H, Bao L, Chen D. Nontargeted detection and recognition of adulterants in milk powder using Raman imaging and neural networks. Analyst 2023; 148:412-421. [PMID: 36541331 DOI: 10.1039/d2an01540d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Raman imaging technology combined with targeted chemometrics can play a vital role in the rapid detection of milk powder adulteration, which threatens the lives of infants and other people. However, these methods always suffer from a narrow detection range. Nontargeted methods show a broader detection range but cannot recognize adulterants. Here, a novel nontargeted chemometric method, named as the adversarial discrimination neural network (ADNN), is proposed to detect and recognize adulterants simultaneously. The method comprises building a tight boundary in the feature space of Raman images to discriminate milk powder samples from the majority of adulterated cases. Then a first-order partial derivative of the ADNN is calculated to recognize different adulterants through a local approximation strategy. A validation set containing samples adulterated with various adulterants at concentrations ranging from 0.3% to 1.5% w/w was provided to challenge the proposed method. The validated detection accuracy of the proposed method for authentic and adulterated samples was 99.9% and 99.7% and the adulterants were recognized correctly. The ADNN-Raman represents a novel nontargeted and end-to-end tool for detecting and recognizing adulterants in milk powder simultaneously, providing new insights into nontargeted chemometric analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Xia
- School of Precision Instrument and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Zhixuan Huang
- School of Precision Instrument and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Pengfei Zhang
- School of Precision Instrument and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Hanping Bu
- Nestlé Food Safety Institute of China, Nestlé R & D (China) Ltd, Beijing 100016, China
| | - Lei Bao
- Nestlé Food Safety Institute of China, Nestlé R & D (China) Ltd, Beijing 100016, China
| | - Da Chen
- Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Civil Aviation Energy Environment and Green Development, Civil Aviation University of China, Tianjin, 300300, China.
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2
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Tian H, Chen B, Yu H, Lou X, Li Y, Yu H, Chen L, Chen C. Rapid detection of neutralising acid adulterants in raw milk using a milk component analyser and chemometrics. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2022; 39:1501-1511. [PMID: 35767628 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2022.2093985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
This study focused on the development of a method for the rapid detection of acid-neutralising adulterants in raw milk using a milk composition analyser. Qualitative analysis for the discrimination of different acid-neutralising acid adulterants in raw milk and quantification of NaSCN in adulterated raw milk were conducted, combined with chemometrics. The results showed that the milk component analyser combined with principal component analysis (PCA) could judge whether raw milk samples were adulterated but cannot identify the types of adulterated substances. Although partial least squares discrimination analysis (PLS-DA) can distinguish some adulterated raw milk samples, the accuracy rate was only 56.3%; the random forest (RF) model could recognise most adulterated raw milk samples with an accuracy rate of 97.5% and the F1-score was 0.9638. In the prediction model of NaSCN adulteration concentration in raw milk constructed by RF, the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.9889, and the root means square error (RMSE) was 3.28 × 10-4, suggesting a high prediction performance of the model. The effectiveness of the method for the detection of real samples in practical production was also proved. Based on the above results, it could conclude that the milk component analyser, combined with chemometrics, effectively distinguished acid-neutralising adulterants in raw milk. These findings provide a reference for the rapid detection of adulterants and the quality control of raw milk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaixiang Tian
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Bin Chen
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongbin Yu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinman Lou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Haiyan Yu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Liqiong Chen
- School of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China
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3
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A novel approach for rapid discrimination of common and durum wheat flours using spectroscopic analyses combined with chemometrics. J Cereal Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2021.103269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Yang Y, Hettinga KA, Erasmus SW, Pustjens AM, van Ruth SM. Opportunities for fraudsters: When would profitable milk adulterations go unnoticed by common, standardized FTIR measurements? Food Res Int 2020; 136:109543. [PMID: 32846598 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Milk is regarded as one of the top food products susceptible to adulteration where its valuable components are specifically identified as high-risk indicators for milk fraud. The current study explores the impact of common milk adulterants on the apparent compositional parameters of milk from the Dutch market as measured by standardized Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. More precisely, it examines the detectability of these adulterants at various concentration levels using the compositional parameters individually, in a univariate manner, and together in a multivariate approach. In this study we used measured boundaries but also more practical variance-adjusted boundaries to set thresholds for detection of adulteration. The potential economic impact of these adulterations under a milk payment scheme is also evaluated. Twenty-four substances were used to produce various categories of milk adulterations, each at four concentration levels. These substances comprised five protein-rich adulterants, five nitrogen-based adulterants, seven carbohydrate-based adulterants, six preservatives and water, resulting in a set of 360 samples to be analysed. The results showed that the addition of protein-rich adulterants, as well as dicyandiamide and melamine, increased the apparent protein content, while the addition of carbohydrate-based adulterants, whey protein isolate, and skimmed milk powder, increased the apparent lactose content. When considering the compositional parameters univariately, especially protein- and nitrogen-based adulterants did not raise a flag of unusual apparent concentrations at lower concentration levels. Addition of preservatives also went unnoticed. The multivariate approach did not improve the level of detection. Regarding the potential profit of milk adulteration, whey protein and corn starch seem particularly interesting. Combining the artificial inflation of valuable components, the resulting potential profit, and the gaps in detection, it appears that the whey protein isolates deserve particular attention when thinking like a criminal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzheng Yang
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands; Wageningen Food Safety Research, Part of Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Kasper A Hettinga
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Sara W Erasmus
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Annemieke M Pustjens
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Part of Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Saskia M van Ruth
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands; Wageningen Food Safety Research, Part of Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands; Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
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Nardiello D, Natale A, Palermo C, Quinto M, Centonze D. Milk authenticity by ion-trap proteomics following multi-enzyme digestion. Food Chem 2017; 244:317-323. [PMID: 29120788 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.10.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The practice of adding adulterating substances in milk in order to raise profits is unfortunately worldwide. In addition, higher priced milk, coming from minor dairy species, is often illegally integrated with the lower priced cow milk. The presence of species-specific proteins, different from those declared in label, may be a serious problem for people with allergies. The development of proper analytical methods is therefore essential to protect consumer benefits and product authenticity. In this study, a proteomic approach for the detection of adulteration processes of specific milks in mixtures is proposed. Few microliters of milk samples have been digested with trypsin and chymotrypsin and analyzed by nanoLC-ESI-IT-MS/MS. A post-database processing was performed to obtain confident peptide sequence assignments, allowing the detection of milk adulteration at a level lower than 1%. Species-specific peptides from bovine β-lactoglobulin and αS1 casein were identified as suitable peptide markers of milk authenticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatella Nardiello
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Degli Alimenti e dell'Ambiente, Università Degli Studi di Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71122 Foggia, Italy.
| | - Anna Natale
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Degli Alimenti e dell'Ambiente, Università Degli Studi di Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71122 Foggia, Italy
| | - Carmen Palermo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Degli Alimenti e dell'Ambiente, Università Degli Studi di Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71122 Foggia, Italy
| | - Maurizio Quinto
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Degli Alimenti e dell'Ambiente, Università Degli Studi di Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71122 Foggia, Italy
| | - Diego Centonze
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Degli Alimenti e dell'Ambiente, Università Degli Studi di Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71122 Foggia, Italy
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Adulteration identification in raw milk using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Journal of Food Science and Technology 2017; 54:2394-2402. [PMID: 28740297 DOI: 10.1007/s13197-017-2680-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Adulteration of milk is a common practice that concerns regulatory agencies, industry, and the population. Despite the growing need for checking adulteration, the current methods employed generally have low performance and are highly dependent on manual labor. This study aims to calibrate and validate a compact equipment (MilkoScan FT1) that adopts a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy methodology to monitor adulteration in raw milk. Almost 2500 milk samples were used for reference spectrum construction and 1650 samples were used to validate the identification of the following five most commonly used adulterants (at three different concentrations each): (1) cornstarch, (2) sodium bicarbonate, (3) sodium citrate, (4) formaldehyde, and (5) saccharose, plus the additions of two levels of water or whey. To define the calibration with the best performance in milk adulteration identification, 12 calibrations involving 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, or 18 factors, with one or two outlier eliminations, were developed. The results of sensitivity and specificity analyses, as well as Kruskal-Wallis and Dunn multiple comparison tests, revealed that the calibration that best identified the adulterants was the one involving 14 factors, with a single elimination of outliers, exhibiting for all adulterants simultaneously, 84% sensitivity and 100% specificity. The calibration showed excellent sensitivity to cornstarch (>98%), sodium bicarbonate (100%), sodium citrate (99%), and formaldehyde (>84%), indicating that this calibration has good capacity for adulteration detection. Thus, this methodology is a viable option for the dairy industry to identify adulteration of raw milk.
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Nascimento CF, Santos PM, Pereira-Filho ER, Rocha FR. Recent advances on determination of milk adulterants. Food Chem 2017; 221:1232-1244. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Revised: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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8
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Detection and quantification of anionic detergent (lissapol) in milk using attenuated total reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy. Food Chem 2017; 221:815-821. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.11.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Revised: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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9
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Methodologies for the Characterization of the Quality of Dairy Products. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2017; 82:237-275. [PMID: 28427534 DOI: 10.1016/bs.afnr.2016.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The growing interest of consumers in food quality and safety issues has contributed to the increasing demand for sensitive and rapid analytical technologies. Physicochemical, textural, sensory, etc., methods have been used to evaluate the quality and authenticity of milk and dairy products. Despite the importance of these standard methods, they are expensive and time consuming. Recently, spectroscopic methods have shown great potential due to speed of analysis, minimal sample preparation, high repeatability, low cost, and, most of all, the fact that these techniques are noninvasive and nondestructive and, therefore, could be applied to any on-line monitoring system. This chapter gave examples of the application of the most commonly traditional methods for the determination of the quality of milk and dairy products. A special focus is devoted to the use of infrared and fluorescence spectroscopies for the evaluation of the quality of dairy products.
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Yang X, Jia Z, Tan Z, Xu H, Luo N, Liao X. Determination of melamine in infant formulas by fluorescence quenching based on the functionalized Au nanoclusters. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.05.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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11
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Interlaboratory Validation of Modified Classical Qualitative Methods for Detection of Adulterants in Milk: Starch, Chloride, and Sucrose. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-016-0432-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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12
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Kamal M, Karoui R. Analytical methods coupled with chemometric tools for determining the authenticity and detecting the adulteration of dairy products: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2015.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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13
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Rapid detection of melamine in milk liquid and powder by surface-enhanced Raman scattering substrate array. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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