Evaluation of the contamination of spirits by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using ultrasound-assisted emulsification microextraction coupled to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Lab-made automated parallel-dispersive pipette extraction device for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in distilled beverages (sugarcane spirits) using HPLC-DAD

This work describes the development of a new automated parallel dispersive tip microextraction method (Au-Pa-DPX) for the determination of eleven polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in four samples of Brazilian sugarcane spirit beverages, with separation and detection done by the HPLC-DAD. The results obtained with the Au-Pa-DPX approach were also compared with those obtained via the conventional parallel manual DPX method with the same samples and optimized extraction process. Desorption solvent and cycles of desorption, cleaning and extraction were optimized using response surface methodology and univariate approaches. For the Au-Pa-DPX method, the coefficient of determination (R2) ranged from 0.9948 to 0.9997. The limits of detection and quantification were all 0.303 μg l-1 and 1.00 μg l-1, respectively. Interday and intraday precision ranged from 7.6 % to 31.7 % and 0.40 % to 15.8 %, respectively. For the manual parallel DPX method, the interday and intraday precision ranged from 8.2 % to 38.1 % and 5.40 % to 18.7 %, respectively. The relative recovery values obtained with the proposed method ranged from 53.29 to 124.94 %. The enrichment factors ranged from 15.13 to 22.35. The sum of PAH concentrations in the four samples ranged from undetected to 25.58 μg l-1. These results, when correlated to other methods, highlight the gains in regards to precision obtained with the automated apparatus. Furthermore, when compared to other methods from the literature, it is an interesting green alternative for the determination of these analytes and this sample, with high throughput (4.67 min per sample), low consumption of solvents and samples, generating less waste and reducing health risks to the analyst.

A State-of-the-Science Review of Alcoholic Beverages and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

BACKGROUND

The association between alcohol and certain cancers is well established, yet beyond ethanol and its metabolite acetaldehyde, little is known about the presence of other carcinogenic compounds in alcoholic beverages, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), such as benzo[a]pyrene (a Group I carcinogen).

OBJECTIVES

We summarized the published literature on PAH levels in alcoholic beverages to identify potential gaps in knowledge to inform future research.

METHODS

Medline and Scopus were searched for primary research published from January 1966 to November 2023 that quantified PAH levels among various types of alcoholic beverages, including whisky, rum, brandy, gin, vodka, wine, and beer. Studies that were not primary literature were excluded; only studies that quantified PAH content in the specified alcoholic beverages were included.

RESULTS

Ten studies published from 1966 to 2019 met the criteria for review. Other than beverage type, no publication reported selection criteria for their samples of tested alcohol products. Studies used a variety of analytical methods to detect PAHs. Of the 10 studies, 7 were published after 2000, and 6 assessed < 20 products. Of the studies, 7 examined spirits; 3, beer; and 4, wines. Benzo[a]pyrene was most prevalent among spirit products, particularly whisky, with values generally exceeding acceptable levels for drinking water. Some beer and wine products also contained PAHs, albeit at lower levels and less frequently than spirit products.

DISCUSSION

PAHs are found in some alcohol products and appear to vary by beverage type. However, there is an incomplete understanding of their presence and levels among large, representative samples from the range of currently available alcohol products. Addressing this gap could improve understanding of alcohol-cancer relationships and may have important implications for public health and the regulation of alcohol products. In addition, novel methods, such as direct mass spectroscopy, may facilitate more thorough testing of samples to further investigate this relationship. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13506.

Magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction of some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from honey samples using iron (III) oxinate nanocomposite as an efficient sorbent

In this work, iron (III) oxinate magnetic nanocomposite was synthesized and employed as an efficient sorbent for the magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction of some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from honey samples. In the following, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction procedure was used to further preconcentration of the analytes. The prepared sorbent was characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer, X-ray diffractometer, vibrating sample magnetometer, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscope, and scanning electron microscope. The results verified the successful formation of the magnetic sorbent. In the extraction process, the sorbent was added into an aqueous solution and the mixture was vortexed. After completing the adsorption process, the supernatant phase was separated in the presence of a magnet and the analytes adsorbed onto sorbent were eluted by acetonitrile. Then, μL-level of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was mixed with the obtained acetonitrile and injected into NaCl solution. Finally, one microliter of the sedimented phase was injected into gas chromatography-flame ionization detector after centrifugation. Under the optimum conditions, a great repeatability (relative standard deviation equal or less than 5 and 6% for intra- and inter day precisions, respectively), acceptable extraction recoveries (59-84%), high enrichment factors (118-168), and low limits of detection and quantification (0.16-0.36 and 0.56-1.22 ng g^-1 , respectively) were acquired. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cachaças packed in bottles of polyethylene terephthalate

Cachaça is a beverage of great cultural and economic importance for Brazil. It is made up of several substances that are responsible for the flavor of the beverage. Countless substances of a toxic nature can also be present, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). These contaminants are commonly found in beverages and food. They have been studied because their toxicity is related to their mutagenic and carcinogenic properties, and they pose a risk to human health. The PAHs can be formed in cachaça during different stages of processing. In this work, the presence of PAHs (naphthalene, acenaphene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, acephenylene, and benzo[a]pyrene) was investigated during the storage of the beverage in plastic containers. Thus, samples from five producers of cachaça in the state of Minas Gerais were stored for up to 8 months in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) packaging from three different manufacturers. Samples stored for 4 and 8 months were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography, and 10 PAHs (naphthalene, acenaphene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, acephenylene, and benzo[a]pyrene) were identified and quantified. An increase in PAH concentration in cachaça samples with the storage time in plastic containers was observed. The three different packages contributed to the contamination of the cachaça samples with different PAHs. The highest concentration (approximately 11.0 µg L^-1 ) of fluorene was observed in sample A from the three packages and during the two storage times. Thus, it can be inferred that the storage of cachaça in bottles of PET is inadequate for maintaining the quality of the beverage. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Therefore, it can be inferred from the results of the analysis that PET packages are sources of PAHs, and the storage time in these packages contributed to the increase in the concentration of these contaminants in the beverage. These results suggest that a review of the legislation regarding the use of PET packaging for beverage storage is necessary, as these compounds are carcinogenic.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Sample Preparation and Analysis in Beverages: A Review

The monitoring of food contaminants is of interests to both food regulatory bodies and the consumers. This literature review covers polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with regard to their background, sources of exposures, and occurrence in food and environment as well as health hazards. Furthermore, analytical methods focusing on the analysis of PAHs in tea, coffee, milk, and alcoholic samples for the last 16 years are presented. Numerous experimental methods have been developed aiming to obtain better limits of detections (LODs) and percent recoveries as well as to reduce solvent consumption and laborious work. These include information such as the selected PAHs analyzed, food matrix of PAHs, methods of extraction, cleanup procedure, LOD, limits of quantitation (LOQ), and percent recovery. For the analysis of tea, coffee, milk, and alcoholic samples, a majority of the research papers focused on the 16 US Environmental Protection Agency PAHs, while PAH4, PAH8, and methylated PAHs were also of interests. Extraction methods range from the classic Soxhlet extraction and liquid–liquid extraction to newer methods such as QuEChERS, dispersive solid-phase microextraction, and magnetic solid-phase extraction. The cleanup methods involved mainly the use of column chromatography and SPE filled with either silica or Florisil adsorbents. Gas chromatography and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry or fluorescence detectors are the main analytical instruments used. A majority of the selected combined methods used are able to achieve LODs and percent recoveries in the ranges of 0.01–5 ug/kg and 70–110%, respectively, for the analysis of tea, coffee, milk, and alcoholic samples.

Bioaccumulation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons for Forensic Assessment Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are considered xenobiotics of a potentially carcinogenic nature, being accumulated in the fatty tissue of the body. The objective of this work was the development and validation of a new analytical method to check the bioaccumulation of these toxic compounds in human organs obtained from autopsies. The contaminants were first isolated from the tissues by salt-assisted liquid-liquid extraction in acetonitrile. Because of the low concentrations of these compounds in the human body, a dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction procedure was included. The preconcentrated samples were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to identify the compounds. Principal component analysis was applied to show the natural clustering of forensic samples and orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis to develop a multivariate regression method, which permitted the classification of samples. The quantification limits for the 13 PAHs (acenaphthylene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, dibenz(a,h)anthracene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene) analyzed were in the 0.06-0.44 ng g^-1 range, depending on the compound, while the mean intraday relative standard deviation of about 7% demonstrated the high precision of the method. Linearity was verified in the 0.5-200 ng g^-1 range, and the enrichment factors were between 55 and 122. The results provided by the analysis of seven different human organs (brain, liver, kidney, lung, heart, spleen, and abdominal fat) from eight autopsies confirmed the PAH-bioaccumulation capacity of human body, fat showing the highest degree of bioaccumulation. The present work is the first study on PAH contamination in different organs obtained from autopsies, being PAH detected in most human samples at values ranged from 0 to 19 ng g^-1.

Simultaneous Extraction of Pesticides and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Brazilian Cachaça Using a Modified QuEChERS Method Followed by Gas Chromatography Coupled to Tandem Mass Spectrometry Quantification

A modified QuEChERS method was optimized for simultaneous extraction of 93 pesticides and 6 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cachaça. The procedure employed 20 mL of sample, 10 mL of dichloromethane, 1 g of NaCl, and 6 g of MgSO₄. The methods were validated in accordance with pesticide tolerances set by the National Health Surveillance Agency of Brazil and government guidelines of Brazil and the European Union. The linearity of all curves was adequate, with calculated t_r higher than the critical value, at the 95% confidence level. For pesticides, recoveries ranged between 86.7 and 118.2%, relative standard deviation (RSD) ≤ 20%, at least at two concentration levels, and limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ) were 2.5 and 10.0 μg L^-1, respectively. For PAHs, recoveries ranged between 84.8 and 111.5%, RSD was between 6.2 and 27.3%, LOD and LOQ were 0.25 and 1.0 μg L^-1, respectively. The combined standard uncertainty was lower than 50% of the relative expanded uncertainty value at concentration levels of greater relevance in both methods. Analyses of five commercial samples detected the presence of 9 pesticides (10.0-128.0 μg L^-1) and 6 PAHs (2.0-4.0 μg L^-1), indicating the need for a specific legislation for Brazilian cachaça.

Hormones removal from municipal wastewater using ultrasound

Estrogens are one of the micro-pollutants in the wastewater which have detrimental effects on water living organisms. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of ultrasound to reduce the estrogen (E1) and 17 beta-estradiol (E2) from municipal wastewater. Hence, a cylindrical batch reactor was designed. The effects of powers, frequency, exposure time and pH on reduction efficiency were investigated. The residual concentration of E1 and E2 hormones was measured in reactor effluent by electrochemiluminescence (ECL) method. The results showed that ultrasound removed 85-96% of both E1 and E2 hormones after 45 min while other parameters changes in the range of their operations. Also, the frequency and power of ultrasound had a significant effect on reduction efficiency of hormones while the exposure had no significant effect. Furthermore, the interaction of power and frequency reduced their efficacy to 64.3% (P_value = 0.005). The result also indicated that the ultrasound waves have high ability to reduce Steroid hormones from municipal wastewater. The proposed method can be considered as one of the significant strategies for reduction or destruction of hormones from wastewater due to the non-generation of dangerous by-products and the low energy consumption.

Effects of ultrasound pretreatment with different frequencies and working modes on the enzymolysis and the structure characterization of rice protein

The effects of ultrasound pretreatment with different frequencies and working modes, including mono-frequency ultrasound (MFU), dual-frequency ultrasound (DFU) and tri-frequency ultrasound (TFU), on the degree of hydrolysis (DH) of rice protein (RP) and angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity of RP hydrolysate were investigated. Ultraviolet-visible (UV) spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, surface hydrophobicity and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of RP pretreated with ultrasound were measured. The results showed that ultrasound pretreatment did not increase DH of RP significantly (p>0.05). However, all the ultrasound pretreatment increased the ACE inhibitory activity of RP hydrolysate significantly (p<0.05). The MFU of 20kHz showed higher ACE inhibitory activity compared to that of other MFU. The ACE inhibitory activity of sequential DFU was higher than that of simultaneous with the same frequency combination. Sequential TFU of 20/35/50kHz produced the highest increase in ACE inhibitory activity in contrast with other ultrasound frequencies and working modes. All the results under ultrasound pretreatment showed that ultrasound frequencies and working modes were of great effect on the ACE inhibitory activity of RP. The changes in UV-Vis spectra and surface hydrophobicity indicated the unfolding of protein and exposure of hydrophobic groups by ultrasound. The FTIR analysis showed that all the ultrasound pretreatment with different frequencies and working modes decreased α-helix, β-turn content and increased β-sheet, random coil content of RP. The SEM results indicated that ultrasound pretreatment resulted in the deformation of RP. In conclusion, the frequency selection of ultrasound pretreatment of RP is essential for the preparation of ACE inhibitory peptide.

Simultaneous synthesis of a deep eutectic solvent and its application in liquid–liquid microextraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from aqueous samples

New generation of solvents, named deep eutectic solvents, were simultaneously synthesized and used as an extraction solvent in a liquid–liquid microextraction method for the extraction and preconcentration of some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.