Formulation and characterization of novel nanostructured lipid carriers made from beeswax, propolis wax and pomegranate seed oil

Transglutaminase cross-linking ovalbumin-flaxseed oil emulsion gels: Properties, microstructure, and performance in oxidative stability

This study prepared emulsion gels by modifying ovalbumin (OVA)-flaxseed oil (FSO) emulsions with transglutaminase (TGase) and investigated their properties, structure and oxidative stability under different enzyme reaction times. Here, we found prolonged reaction times led to the transformation of α-helix and β-turn into β-sheet and random coil. The elasticity, hardness and water retention of the emulsion gels increased significantly, but the water-holding capacity decreased when the reaction time exceeded 4 h. Confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) indicated extended enzyme reaction time fostered oil droplet aggregation with proteins. Emulsion gel reduced FSO oxidation, especially after 4 h of the enzyme reaction, the peroxide value (PV) of the emulsion gel was reduced by 29.16% compared to the control. In summary, the enzyme reaction time of 4 h resulted in the formation of a dense gel structure and enhanced oxidative stability. This study provides the potential applications in functional foods and biomedical fields.

Whey protein isolate and inulin-glycosylated conjugate affect the physicochemical properties and oxidative stability of pomegranate seed oil emulsion

Glycosylated protein was obtained by the reaction of whey protein isolate(WPI) with inulin of different polymerization degrees and was used to stabilize a pomegranate seed oil emulsion. The physicochemical and antioxidative properties of the emulsions were assessed, and the impacts of accelerated oxidation on pomegranate seed oil were examined. The interfacial tension of WPI and short-chain inulin (SCI)-glycosylated conjugate (WPI-SCI) gradually decreased with increasing glycosylation reaction time. Emulsions stabilized by WPI-SCI (72 h) were the most stable, with a thick interfacial film on the surface of the droplets. After accelerated oxidation for 72 h, WPI-SCI inhibited the oxidation of oil in the emulsion. GC-IMS results showed that the production of harmful volatile components in oil was inhibited, and the peroxide strength was less than 30 mmol/kg oil. This study contributes to understanding of stable storage of lipids.

Comparison of binding sites and affinity of flavonol-Cu(II) complexes with the same parent nucleus: Synthesis, DFT prediction, and coordination pattern

This study explores the coordination dynamics between dietary polyphenols, specifically kaempferol, quercetin, and myricetin, and Cu ions in aqueous environments. A novel synthesis method for flavonol-Cu(II) coordination compounds is introduced, effectively reducing interference from free metal ions. Our results reveal consistent binding patterns of Cu ions with flavonols (2:1 ratio of flavonol to Cu(II)), predominantly at the 4,5 sites. Various analytical techniques are used to validate these coordination ratios and sites. The binding affinity of the flavonols for Cu ions follows a descending sequence: myricetin > quercetin > kaempferol. Notably, coordination with Cu ions enhances the free-radical scavenging activities of these flavonols. These findings hold substantial importance for food chemistry, biology, and medicine, providing crucial insights into the way dietary flavonols form stable structures in environments similar to human body fluids and their interactions with metal ions, opening new possibilities for their application and understanding in diverse scientific domains.

Codelivery of ivermectin and methyl dihydrojasmonate in nanostructured lipid carrier for synergistic antileukemia therapy

Chronic myeloid leukemia is a life-threatening blood-cancer prevalent among children and adolescents. Research for innovative therapeutics combine drug-repurposing, phytotherapeutics and nanodrug-delivery. Ivermectin (Ivn) is a potent anthelmintic, repurposed for antileukemic-activity. However, Ivn exerts off-target toxicity. Methyl-dihydrojasmonate (MJ) is a phytochemical of known antileukemic potential. Herein, we developed for the first-time Ivn/MJ-coloaded nanostructured-lipid-carrier (Ivn@MJ-NLC) for leveraging the antileukemic-activity of the novel Ivn/MJ-combination while ameliorating possible adverse-effects. The developed Ivn@MJ-NLC possessed optimum-nanosize (97 ± 12.70 nm), PDI (0.33 ± 0.02), entrapment for Ivn (97.48 ± 1.48 %) and MJ (99.48 ± 0.57 %) and controlled-release of Ivn (83 % after 140 h) and MJ (80.98 ± 2.45 % after 48 h). In-vitro K562 studies verified Ivn@MJ-NLC prominent cytotoxicity (IC50 = 35.01 ± 2.23 µg/mL) with pronounced Ivn/MJ-synergism (combination-index = 0.59) at low-concentrations (5-10 µg/mL Ivn). Superior Ivn@MJ-NLC cytocompatibility was established on oral-epithelial-cells (OEC) with high OEC/K562 viability-ratio (1.49-1.85). The innovative Ivn@MJ-NLC enhanced K562-nuclear-fragmentation and afforded upregulation of caspase-3 and BAX (1.71 ± 0.07 and 1.45 ± 0.07-fold-increase, respectively) compared to control. Ex-vivo hemocompatibility and in-vivo-biocompatibility of parenteral-Ivn@MJ-NLC, compared to Ivn-solution, was verified via biochemical-blood analysis, histological and histomorphometric studies of liver and kidney tissues. Our findings highlight Ivn@MJ-NLC as an Ivn/MJ synergistic antileukemic platform, ameliorating possible adverse-effects.

Enhancing acid stability of citral through internal structure modulation in nanostructured lipid carriers with solid lipids and phospholipids

In this current study, the internal structure of nanostructured lipid carriers was modulated by phospholipids (lecithin PC, hydrogenated soybean phospholipid HPC) and solid lipids to achieve stable encapsulation of citral. The presence of high melting point HPC could construct α-crystalline type with more lattice defects and effectively inhibit β-ization. The HPC group could maintain the particle size at 155.9-186.9 nm, the polydispersity index (PDI) at 0.182-0.321, the Zeta potential at -57.58 mV to -49.35 mV and the retention rate of citral at 91.33-98.49 % in the acidic environments of 2 mM and 20 mM hydrochloric acid solutions. The recrystallization index (RI) of NLC increased with the number of solid lipid ester bonds (from 3.57 % to 16.58 % in the PC group and from 0.82 % to 12.47 % in the HPC group). The results illustrated that the number of solid lipid ester bonds and the melting point of phospholipids affected crystallinity of the lipid matrix and thus the stability of encapsulated citral. Hydrogenated phospholipid with high melting points was more beneficial in stabilizing citral. The present study improved the acidic stability of citral and provided a new thought for the application of citral in acidic beverages.

Electrostimulable polymeric films with hyaluronic acid and lipid nanoparticles for simultaneous topical delivery of macromolecules and lipophilic drugs

This study focused on developing electrically stimulable hyaluronic acid (HA) films incorporating lipid nanoparticles (NPs) designed for the topical administration of lipophilic drugs and macromolecules. Based on beeswax and medium-chain triglycerides, NPs were successfully integrated into silk fibroin/chitosan films containing HA (NP-HA films) at a density of approximately 1011 NP/cm2, ensuring a uniform distribution. This integration resulted in a 40% increase in film roughness, a twofold decrease in Young's modulus, and enhanced film flexibility and bioadhesion work. The NP-HA films, featuring Ag/AgCl electrodes, demonstrated the capability to conduct a constant electrical current of 0.2 mA/cm2 without inducing toxicity in keratinocytes and fibroblasts during a 15-min application. Moreover, the NPs facilitated the homogeneous distribution of lipophilic drugs within the film, effectively transporting them to the skin and uniformly distributing them in the stratum corneum upon film administration. The sustained release of HA from the films, following Higuchi kinetics, did not alter the macroscopic characteristics of the film. Although anodic iontophoresis did not noticeably affect the release of HA, it did enhance its penetration into the skin. This enhancement facilitated the permeation of HA with a molecular weight (MW) of up to 2 × 105 through intercellular and transcellular routes. Confocal Raman spectroscopy provided evidence of an approximate 100% increase in the presence of HA with a MW in the range of 1.5-1.8 × 106 in the viable epidermis of human skin after only 15 min of iontophoresis applied to the films. Combining iontophoresis with NP-HA films exhibits substantial potential for noninvasive treatments focused on skin rejuvenation and wound healing.

Ezetimibe-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier for Oral Delivery: Response Surface Methodology; In Vitro Characterization and Assessing the Antihyperlipidemic Effect in Rats

Among the independent risk factors for the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases like atherosclerosis is hyperlipidemia. To decrease cardiovascular events and patient mortality, antihyperlipidemia therapy is crucial. Our study aimed to enhance the solubility of the poorly soluble lipid-lowering agent ezetimibe (EZ), a member of class II as per the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS). The drug was formulated as a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) employing the ultrasonication technique. A response surface D-optimal design was employed to study the effect of changing the liquid lipid type and the percentage of liquid lipid with respect to total lipid amount on the particle size, zeta potential, percentage entrapment efficiency, and percentage of drug released after 24 h. Nine NLC formulations were prepared and pharmaceutically evaluated, and the optimized NLC formulation was selected, further characterized, and evaluated as well. Optimized EZ-NLC was assessed in the high-fat diet model to induce hyperlipidemia in rats in comparison with the EZ suspension. The results of the optimized formulation showed that the prepared NLCs were spherical with no aggregation having a particle size of 204.3 ± 19.17 nm, zeta potential equal to -32 ± 7.59 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 81.5 ± 3.58% and 72.15 ± 4.58% drug released after 24 h. EZ-NLC significantly decreased the elevated serum lipid parameters, including total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL-C, but significantly normalized serum HDL-C levels of rats kept on a high-fat diet. The results demonstrated the improved efficacy of EZ-NLC in ameliorating the elevated serum lipid parameters compared to EZ.

Psyllium and okra mucilage as co-carrier wall materials for fenugreek oil encapsulation and its utilization as fat replacers in pan bread and biscuit production

This study aimed to investigate the potential use of okra and psyllium mucilage as co-carrier wall materials with whey protein and gum Arabic polymers for encapsulation of fenugreek oil to mask its undesirable flavor and promote their health benefits. Particle size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, morphological properties and fatty acid profiles of crude and encapsulated oils were examined using zeta-sizer, SEM and GC-MS techniques. Crude and encapsulated fenugreek oils were added as functional ingredients during production of pan bread and biscuits. The quality characteristics (baking quality, color and organoleptic properties) of bread and biscuits as well as microbiological properties of bred samples were evaluated. Results showed that the forming microcapsules had sphere particles with the size of 5.05 and 31.64 μm for okra and pysillium mucilage, respectively and had smooth continuous surfaces with no holes or fractures. Fatty acids analysis showed that fenugreek oil is superior functional edible oil, rich in unsaturated fatty acids. The organoleptic properties of products were improved when fat replaced with encapsulated fenugreek oil with okra or psyllium mucilage. Likewise, encapsulated fenugreek oil showed antimicrobial activity in bread samples during storage period. On contrary, Bread and biscuits incorporated with crude fenugreek oil gained the lowest scores for all organoleptic parameters. Regarding these results, encapsulated fenugreek oil presents good fat alternatives in dough formulations with acceptable technological, sensory and antimicrobial properties. However, further investigations still needed regarding the biological activity of encapsulated fenugreek oil and its utilization as a food supplement in other food products.

Effects of solid lipid ratio in curcumin loaded emulsions on its gastrointestinal fate: Colloidal stability and mucus absorption efficiency

Emulsions offer a promising approach for enhancing the bioavailability of lipophilic active compounds when administered orally. Nonetheless, the impact of lipid matrix composition on the efficacy of penetration and bioavailability remains uncertain. This research investigated the effects of solid lipid ratio in emulsions on colloidal stability, mucus permeability, and bioavailability in vivo. To assess colloidal stability in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), Turbiscan was employed. The results indicated that an elevated solid lipid ratio improved intestinal stability through the formation of aggregations that resisted pancreatic absorption, as confirmed by TEM. The absorption in various intestinal sections was tested using the Ussing Chamber model. Notably, emulsion with 0 % solid lipid (G0M10) exhibited the highest cumulative permeation across the duodenum (221.2 ± 21.19 ng), jejunum (713.1 ± 20.93 ng), and ileum (1056.3 ± 392.06 ng) due to its higher in vitro release rate (>60 %) and smaller particle size. The cumulative permeation decreased with increasing solid lipid ratio. CLSM revealed that emulsions with a solid lipid ratio exceeding 50 % exhibited poor mucus permeability within 15 min due to aggregation during the passage in the GIT. However, over an extended penetration time (30 min), higher permeability was observed, reaching approximately 30 μm. In vitro release studies indicated that a higher solid lipid ratio resulted in a reduced release rate of curcumin (<60 %) compared to G0M10 (66.9 ± 3.58 %). Correlation analysis unveiled a positive link between bioavailability and in vitro release rate, while a negative correlation emerged with the solid lipid ratio. This work underscores the significance of solid lipid ratios in emulsions for optimizing bioavailability through their influence on stability, permeability, and release of lipophilic compounds in the GIT.

Current applications of solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers as vehicles in oral delivery systems for antioxidant nutraceuticals: A review

Antioxidant nutraceuticals can be found in several dietary sources and have been utilized for various medical benefits including health promotion, disease prevention, and support for treatment of acute and/or chronic diseases. Nonetheless, there are some limitations in delivering antioxidants via oral administration such as low solubility and permeability, pH and enzyme degradation, and instability of the compounds along the gastrointestinal tract leading to low bioavailability. In order to tackle these challenges, the utilization of lipid nanoparticles has numerous advantages to the escalating delivery system of antioxidants in nutraceuticals across the gastrointestinal tract barrier. Nowadays, several types of lipid nanoparticles can be used in antioxidant nutraceutical delivery systems through the oral route, namely solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers. This review article aims to provide notable information on the importance and applications of lipid nanoparticles in antioxidant delivery systems from nutraceuticals by an oral route. The mechanism in enhancing antioxidant compound transport across the gastrointestinal tract can occur by elevating loading capacity, improving chemical and physical stability, and increasing its bioavailability. To date, lipid nanoparticle vehicles have been developed to improve the delivery of antioxidant compounds to enhance bioavailability via oral routes. Lipid nanoparticles have remarkable benefits in delivering antioxidant nutraceuticals via oral administration. Hence, scale-up and commercialization of antioxidant nutraceutical-loaded lipid nanoparticles have been a potential technology in recent years. Subsequently, several vegetable and natural oils with antioxidant activity can also be utilized for nanoparticle formulation lipid components to increase nutraceuticals' antioxidant properties and bioavailability.

Encapsulation of vitamin D3 using rhamnolipids-based nanostructured lipid carriers

This work had as main objective to encapsulate vitamin D3 (VD3) into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) using rhamnolipids as surfactant. Glycerol monostearate and medium chain triglycerides with 2.625 % of VD3 were used as lipid materials. The three formulations of NLCs with VD3 (NLCs + VD3) were composed by 99 % of aqueous phase, 1 % of lipid phase and 0.05 % of surfactant. The difference between them was the ratio of solid:liquid in lipid phase. The NLCs + VD3 sizes ranged between 92.1 and 108.1 nm. The most stable formulation maintaining their caracteristics for 60 days at 4 °C. The NLCs + VD3 cytotoxicity demonstrated that concentrations of 0.25 mg/mL or lower up had a good biocompatibility in vitro. During the in vitro digestion, formulations with lower sizes and higher content on solid lipid had higher lipolysis rate and consequently higher VD3 bioaccessibility. The rhamnolipids-based NLCs are a good option for the encapsulation of VD3.

Anti-obesity potential of a yogurt functionalized with a CLNA-rich pomegranate oil

Pomegranate oil is rich in conjugated linolenic acids, compounds which have attracted attention due to their potential applicability in obesity management as they are capable of modulating leptin and adiponectin secretion and regulate fatty acids storage and glucose metabolism. Among the possible bioactive foodstuffs capable of delivering these bioactive compounds yogurts have shown potential. Thus, the purpose of this work was to develop functional yogurts through the addition of pomegranate oil either in its free or encapsulated (used as a protective strategy against oxidation and gastrointestinal tract passage) forms. To that end, the pomegranate oil (free and encapsulated) was incorporated in yogurt and the functional yogurt capacity to modulate hepatic lipid accumulation, adipocyte metabolism (in terms of lipolysis, and adipokines secretion) and immune response was evaluated. The results obtained showed that the pomegranate oil's incorporation led to an improvement in the yogurts' nutritional values, with a reduction in its atherogenic and thrombogenic indexes (more than 78% for atherogenic and 76% for thrombogenic index) and an enhancement of its hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio (more than 62%) when compared to the control yogurt. Furthermore, data also showed for the first time how these functional yogurts promoted modulation of metabolic processes post GIT as they were capable of reducing by 40% triglycerides accumulation in steatosis-induced Hep G2 cells and by 30 % in differentiated adipocytes. Moreover, samples also showed a capacity to modulate the leptin and adiponectin secretion (56 % of increase in adiponectin) and reduce the IL-6 secretion (ca 44%) and TNF-α (ca 12%) in LPS-stimulated cells. Thus, the CLNA-rich yogurt here developed showed potential as a viable nutraceutical alternative for obesity management.

Preparation and Characterization of Transethosome Formulation for the Enhanced Delivery of Sinapic Acid

Sinapic acid (SA) is a bioactive phenolic acid; its diverse properties are its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, and antibacterial activities. The bioactive compound SA is poorly soluble in water. Our goal was to formulate SA-transethosomes using thin-film hydration. The prepared formulations were examined for various parameters. In addition, the optimized formulation was evaluated for surface morphology, in-vitro penetration studies across the Strat M®, and its antioxidant activity. The optimized formulation (F5) exhibited 74.36% entrapment efficacy. The vesicle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index were found to be 111.67 nm, -7.253 mV, and 0.240, respectively. The surface morphology showed smooth and spherical vesicles of SA-transethosomes. In addition, the prepared SA-transethosomes exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity. The SA-transethosomes demonstrated considerably greater penetration across the Strat M® membrane during the study. The flux of SA and SA-transethosomes through the Strat M® membrane was 1.03 ± 0.07 µg/cm2/h and 2.93 ± 0.16 µg/cm2/h. The enhancement ratio of SA-transethosomes was 2.86 ± 0.35 compared to the control. The SA-transethosomes are flexible nano-sized vesicles and are able to penetrate the entrapped drug in a higher concentration. Hence, it was concluded that SA-transethosome-based approaches have the potential to be useful for accentuating the penetrability of SA across the skin.

Propolis-Based Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for α-Mangostin Delivery: Formulation, Characterization, and In Vitro Antioxidant Activity Evaluation

α-Mangostin (a xanthone derivative found in the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana L.) and propolis extract (which is rich in flavonoids and phenols) are known for their antioxidant properties, making them potential supplements for the treatment of oxidative stress-related conditions. However, these two potential substances have the same primary drawback, which is low solubility in water. The low water solubility of α-mangostin and propolis can be overcome by utilizing nanotechnology approaches. In this study, a propolis-based nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) system was formulated to enhance the delivery of α-mangostin. The aim of this study was to characterize the formulation and investigate its influence on the antioxidant activity of α-mangostin. The results showed that both unloaded propolis-based NLC (NLC-P) and α-mangostin-loaded propolis-based NLC (NLC-P-α-M) had nanoscale particle sizes (72.7 ± 1.082 nm and 80.3 ± 1.015 nm, respectively), neutral surface zeta potential (ranging between +10 mV and -10 mV), and good particle size distribution (indicated by a polydispersity index of <0.3). The NLC-P-α-M exhibited good entrapment efficiency of 87.972 ± 0.246%. Dissolution testing indicated a ~13-fold increase in the solubility of α-mangostin compared to α-mangostin powder alone. The incorporation into the propolis-based NLC system correlated well with the enhanced antioxidant activity of α-mangostin (p < 0.01) compared to NLC-P and α-mangostin alone. Therefore, the modification of the delivery system by incorporating α-mangostin into the propolis-based NLC overcomes the physicochemical challenges of α-mangostin while enhancing its antioxidant effectiveness.

Beeswax: A review on the recent progress in the development of superhydrophobic films/coatings and their applications in fruits preservation

Recently, the design and fabrication of bio-inspired superhydrophobic materials using natural lipid additives such as beeswax (BW) have aroused great attention in food packaging as they can minimize the transfer rate of water molecules and have effective moisture barriers. This review discusses the recent progress in the design and fabrication of BW-containing edible films/coatings (e.g., emulsion and blend films, bilayer materials, bionanocomposites, and antimicrobial materials) and their potential applications on the postharvest life and quality attributes of various fruits. Incorporation of BW into polysaccharides- and proteins-based emulsion films effectively improved their hydrophobicity, water vapor, and UV/visible light barrier properties, as well as the film tensile properties. The addition of nanoparticles to BW-based polymeric matrices often results in improved physico-mechanical properties. BW coatings have been also applied to prolong the shelf-life of various climacteric fruits, however, optimization of the wax concentration can be further investigated to develop targeted food storage systems.

Development, Optimization, and In Vitro/In Vivo Evaluation of Azelaic Acid Transethosomal Gel for Antidermatophyte Activity

Treatment of dermatophytosis is quite challenging. This work aims to investigate the antidermatophyte action of Azelaic acid (AzA) and evaluate its efficacy upon entrapment into transethosomes (TEs) and incorporation into a gel to enhance its application. Optimization of formulation variables of TEs was carried out after preparation using the thin film hydration technique. The antidermatophyte activity of AzA-TEs was first evaluated in vitro. In addition, two guinea pig infection models with Trichophyton (T.) mentagrophytes and Microsporum (M.) canis were established for the in vivo assessment. The optimized formula showed a mean particle size of 219.8 ± 4.7 nm and a zeta potential of -36.5 ± 0.73 mV, while the entrapment efficiency value was 81.9 ± 1.4%. Moreover, the ex vivo permeation study showed enhanced skin penetration for the AzA-TEs (3056 µg/cm²) compared to the free AzA (590 µg/cm²) after 48 h. AzA-TEs induced a greater inhibition in vitro on the tested dermatophyte species than free AzA (MIC₉₀ was 0.01% vs. 0.32% for T. rubrum and 0.032% for T. mentagrophytes and M. canis vs. 0.56%). The mycological cure rate was improved in all treated groups, specially for our optimized AzA-TEs formula in the T. mentagrophytes model, in which it reached 83% in this treated group, while it was 66.76% in the itraconazole and free AzA treated groups. Significant (p < 0.05) lower scores of erythema, scales, and alopecia were observed in the treated groups in comparison with the untreated control and plain groups. In essence, the TEs could be a promising carrier for AzA delivery into deeper skin layers with enhanced antidermatophyte activity.

OSA-starch stabilized EPA nanoliposomes: preparation, characterization, stability and digestion in vitro and in vivo

OSA-starch stabilized EPA nanoliposomes (OSA-EPA-NLs) were prepared by thin film rehydration/dispersion method. The physical properties and morphology of OSA-EPA-NLs were characterized. The best formulated sample was used to measure the storage stability and oxidative properties of EPA under different environmental stresses and to determine release and absorption of OSA-EPA-NLs in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that the encapsulation efficiency of OSA-EPA-NLs was 84.61%. All samples were relatively stable under different environmental stresses, and the release rate of EPA in simulated intestine stage (89.87%) was higher than that in the simulated gastric stage (5.86%). The areas under the EPA concentration-time curve of OSA-EPA-NLs group and EPA-NLs group through in vivo study were 0.42 and 0.32, respectively, which indicated that OSA-starch could improve the stability of EPA nanoliposomes and enhance EPA bioavailability in the form of ethyl esters.

Alginate/pectin dressing with niosomal mangosteen extract for enhanced wound healing: evaluating skin irritation by structure-activity relationship

Most modern wound dressings assist the wound-healing process. In contrast, conventional wound dressings have limited antibacterial activity and promote sporadic fibroblast growth. Therefore, wound dressings with prolonged substance release must be improved. This research aimed to develop hydrogel films. These were synthesized from alginate and pectin, incorporated with mangosteen extract (ME), and encapsulated in niosomes (ME-loaded niosomes). Subsequently, we examined the in vitro release and physical characteristics of ME-loaded niosomes. These characteristics included particle pH, size, charge, polydispersity index (PDI), and drug loading properties. These properties included drug loading content (DLC), entrapment efficiency (EE), and yield (Y). Additionally, we examined the swelling ratio and biological characteristics of the hydrogel film. These characteristics included antibacterial activity, cytotoxicity (L929), cell attachment to the tested materials, cell migration, hemocompatibility, and in vivo irritation. Significant results were obtained using a 2:1 niosome preparation containing Span60 and cholesterol. Ratio influenced size, charge, PDI, DLC, EE, and Y. The results were 225.5 ± 5.83 nm, negatively charged, 0.38, 16.2 ± 0.87%, 64.8 ± 3.49%, and 87.3 ± 3.09%, respectively. Additionally, the release of encapsulated ME was pH sensitive because 85% of the ME can be released at a pH of 5.5 within seven days and decrease to 70% at a pH of 7.4. The maximum swelling ratios of patches with 0.5% and 1% Ca²⁺ crosslinking were 867 wt% and 1,025 wt%, respectively, after 30 min. These results suggested that a medium dose (15 mg) of niosomal ME incorporated in a hydrogel film provided better bacterial inhibition, cell migration, and cell adhesion in an in vitro model. Additionally, no toxicity was observed in the fibroblasts and red blood cells. Therefore, given the above-mentioned advantages, this product can be a promising candidate for wound dressing applications.

Silver Nanoparticles Formulation of Flower Head’s Polyphenols of Cynara scolymus L.: A Promising Candidate against Prostate (PC-3) Cancer Cell Line through Apoptosis Activation

Cynara scolymus L. (Family: Compositae) or artichoke is a nutritious edible plant widely used for its hepatoprotective effect. Crude extracts of flower, bract, and stem were prepared and evaluated for their in vitro antioxidant activity and phenolic content. The flower crude extract exhibited the highest phenolic content (74.29 mg GAE/gm) as well as the best in vitro antioxidant activity using total antioxidant capacity (TAC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FEAP), and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhyazyl (DPPH) scavenging assays compared with ascorbic acid. Phenolic fractions of the crude extracts of different parts were separated and identified using high-performance liquid chromatography HPLC-DAD analysis. The silver nanoparticles of these phenolic fractions were established and tested for their cytotoxicity and apoptotic activity. Results showed that silver nanoparticles of a polyphenolic fraction of flower extract (Nano-TP/Flowers) exhibited potent cytotoxicity against prostate (PC-3) and lung (A549) cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 0.85 μg/mL and 0.94 μg/mL, respectively, compared with doxorubicin as a standard. For apoptosis-induction, Nano-TP/Flowers exhibited apoptosis in PC-3 with a higher ratio than in A549 cells. It induced total prostate apoptotic cell death by 227-fold change while it induced apoptosis in A549 cells by 15.6-fold change. Nano-TP/Flowers upregulated both pro-apoptotic markers and downregulated the antiapoptotic genes using RT-PCR. Hence, this extract may serve as a promising source for anti-prostate cancer candidates.

Fabrication of edible solid lipid nanoparticle from beeswax/propolis wax by spontaneous emulsification: Optimization, characterization and stability

In the current study, the production and characterization of novel solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) using safe/low-cost natural beeswax (BW) and propolis wax (PW) and by the simple and inexpensive assay of spontaneous emulsification were studied. To fabricate SLNs, the optimum levels of surfactant/oil ratio (SOR), stirring speed, and time were obtained based on minimum particle size (PS) and polydispersity index (PDI). Therefore, the optimal conditions to produce PW and BW nanoparticles were SOR of 1.26 and 2 under stirring speed of 1050 rpm for 20 min, leading to PS of 21.9 and 23.2 nm, respectively. The contact angle of 73.7° and 62.9° for BW and PW SLNs respectively, showed suitable hydrophilicity to stabilize oil-in-water (O/W) Pickering emulsions. Temperatures over 70 °C led to a drastic increment of PS in both types of SLNs. Upon nanoparticles drying, the utilization of cryoprotectants could cause less aggregation and better reconstitution.

From propolis to nanopropolis: An exemplary journey and a paradigm shift of a resinous substance produced by bees

Propolis, a natural resinous mixture produced by honey bees is poised with diverse biological activities. Owing to the presence of flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenes, and sesquiterpenes, propolis has garnered versatile applications in pharmaceutical industry. The biopharmaceutical issues associated with propolis often beset its use as being too hydrophobic in nature; it is not absorbed in the body well. To combat the problem, various nanotechnological approaches for the development of novel drug delivery systems are generally applied to improve its bioavailability. This paradigm shift and transition of conventional propolis to nanopropolis are evident from the literature wherein a multitude of studies are available on nanopropolis with improved bioavailability profile. These approaches include preparation of gold nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, liposomes, liquid crystalline formulations, solid lipid nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, etc. Nanopropolis has further been explored to assess the potential benefits of propolis for the development of futuristic useful products such as sunscreens, creams, mouthwashes, toothpastes, and nutritional supplements with improved solubility, bioavailability, and penetration profiles. However, more high-quality clinical studies assessing the effects of propolis either alone or in combination with synthetic drugs as well as natural products are warranted and its safety needs to be firmly established.

Punicic Acid and Its Role in the Prevention of Neurological Disorders: A Review

Millions of people worldwide are affected by neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). NDs are characterized by progressive damage and death of nerve cells accompanied by high levels of inflammatory biomarkers and oxidative stress conditions. Punicic acid, the main bioactive component of pomegranate (Punica granatum) seed oil, is an omega-5 isomer of conjugated α-linoleic acid that has shown strong anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects that contributes towards its positive effect against a wide arrange of diseases. Punicic acid decreases oxidative damage and inflammation by increasing the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. In addition, it can reduce beta-amyloid deposits formation and tau hyperphosphorylation by increasing the expression of GLUT4 protein and the inhibition of calpain hyperactivation. Microencapsulated pomegranate, with high levels of punicic acid, increases antioxidant PON1 activity in HDL. Likewise, encapsulated pomegranate formulations with high levels of punicic acid have shown an increase in the antioxidant PON1 activity in HDL. Because of the limited brain permeability of punicic acid, diverse delivery formulations have been developed to enhance the biological activity of punicic acid in the brain, diminishing neurological disorders symptoms. Punicic acid is an important nutraceutical compound in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s disease.

Tailored rigidity of W/O Pickering emulsions using diacylglycerol-based surface-active solid lipid nanoparticles

Pickering water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions were fabricated by using medium-long chain diacylglycerol (MLCD)-based solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and the connection between the characteristics of the SLNs and the colloidal stability of the emulsions was established. Via melt-emulsification and ultrasonication, MLCD-based SLNs with particle sizes of 120-300 nm were obtained with or without other surfactants. The particle size of the SLNs was influenced by the chemical properties of the surfactants, and surfactants decreased the contact angle of SLNs at the oil-water interface. Gelation was observed in SLNs modified by sodium stearoyl lactylate and lecithin, whereas the addition of Tween 20 resulted in a homogeneous SLN solution. The adsorption of surfactants onto SLN surfaces caused the production of higher amounts of α crystals accompanied by delayed crystallization onset which contributed to the reduction of particle size, interfacial tension and oil wetting ability. The W/O emulsions with higher rigidity and physical stability can be obtained by varying surfactant types and by increasing SLN mass ratios to 60%, whereby more SLNs are adsorbed at the droplet surface as a Pickering stabilizer. This study provides useful insights for the development of diacylglycerol-based SLNs and Pickering W/O emulsions which have great potential for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications.

Lipid Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems: Recent Advances in the Treatment of Skin Disorders

The multifunctional role of the human skin is well known. It acts as a sensory and immune organ that protects the human body from harmful environmental impacts such as chemical, mechanical, and physical threats, reduces UV radiation effects, prevents moisture loss, and helps thermoregulation. In this regard, skin disorders related to skin integrity require adequate treatment. Lipid nanoparticles (LN) are recognized as promising drug delivery systems (DDS) in treating skin disorders. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) together with nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) exhibit excellent tolerability as these are produced from physiological and biodegradable lipids. Moreover, LN applied to the skin can improve stability, drug targeting, occlusion, penetration enhancement, and increased skin hydration compared with other drug nanocarriers. Furthermore, the features of LN can be enhanced by inclusion in suitable bases such as creams, ointments, gels (i.e., hydrogel, emulgel, bigel), lotions, etc. This review focuses on recent developments in lipid nanoparticle systems and their application to treating skin diseases. We point out and consider the reasons for their creation, pay attention to their advantages and disadvantages, list the main production techniques for obtaining them, and examine the place assigned to them in solving the problems caused by skin disorders.

Olanzapine Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers via High Shear Homogenization and Ultrasonication

The aim of this study was to understand the effect of high shear homogenization (HSH) and ultrasonication (US) on the physicochemical properties of blank and olanzapine loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) along with their drug loading potential and drug release profiles from formulated particles. NLCs were prepared with different ratios of Compritol and Miglyol as the solid and liquid lipids, respectively, under changing HSH and US times between 0 to 15 min. The surfactants (Poloxamer 188 (P188) and tween 80) and the drug content was kept constant in all formulations. The prepared NLCs were evaluated for particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, drug crystallinity and chemical interactions between lipids and OLZ. The in-vitro drug release was performed using dialysis tube method in phosphate buffer solution (PBS) at pH 7.4. The formulated NLCs were negatively charged, spherically shaped and monodisperse, with particle sizes ranging from 112 to 191 nm. There was a significant influence of US time on the preparation of NLCs in comparison to HSH, where a significant reduction in the mean particle diameter was seen after 5 min of sonication. An increase of Miglyol content in NLCs led to an increase in particle size. In general, application of US led to decrease in particle size after HSH but an increase in particle diameter of low Miglyol containing preparation was also observed with longer sonication time. OLZ was successfully encapsulated in the NLCs and a total release of 89% was achieved in 24 h in PBS at pH 7.4.

Enhanced alveo pulmonary deposition of nebulized ciclesonide for attenuating airways inflammations: a strategy to overcome metered dose inhaler drawbacks

Ciclesonide (CIC), an inhaled corticosteroid for bronchial asthma is currently available as metered dose inhaler (CIC–MDI) which possesses a major challenge in the management of the elderly, critically ill patients and children. In this work, nebulized CIC nano-structure lipid particles (CIC-NLPs) were prepared and evaluated for their deep pulmonary delivery and cytotoxicity to provide additional clinical benefits to patients in controlled manner and lower dose. The bio-efficacy following nebulization in ovalbumin (OVA) induced asthma Balb/c mice compared to commercial (CIC–MDI) was also assessed. The developed NLPs of 222.6 nm successfully entrapped CIC (entrapment efficiency 93.3%) and exhibited favorable aerosolization efficiency (mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) 2.03 μm and fine particle fraction (FPF) of 84.51%) at lower impactor stages indicating deep lung deposition without imparting any cytotoxic effect up to a concentration of 100 μg/ml. The nebulization of 40 µg dose of the developed CIC-NLPs revealed significant therapeutic impact in the mitigation of the allergic airways inflammations when compared to 80 µg dose of the commercial CIC–MDI inhaler (Alvesco^®). Superior anti-inflammatory and antioxidative stress effects characterized by significant decrease (p< .0001) in inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and 13, serum IgE levels, malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), TNF-α, and activated nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activity were obvious with concomitant increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Histological examination with inhibition of inflammatory cell infiltration in the respiratory tract was correlated well with observed biochemical improvement.

Nano-Strategies for Improving the Bioavailability of Inhaled Pharmaceutical Formulations

Pulmonary pharmaceutical formulations are targeted for the treatment of respiratory diseases. However, their application is limited due to the physiological characteristics of the lungs, such as branching structure, mucociliary and macrophages, as well as certain properties of the drugs like particle size and solubility. Nano-formulations can ameliorate particle sizes and improve drug solubility to enhance bioavailability in the lungs. The nano-formulations for lungs reviewed in this article can be classified into nanocarriers, no-carrier-added nanosuspensions and polymer-drug conjugates. Compared with conventional inhalation preparations, these novel pulmonary pharmaceutical formulations have their own advantages, such as increasing drug solubility for better absorption and less inflammatory reaction caused by the aggregation of insoluble drugs; prolonging pulmonary retention time and reducing drug clearance; improving the patient compliance by avoiding multiple repeated administrations. This review will provide the reader with some background information for pulmonary drug delivery and give an overview of the existing literature about nano-formulations for pulmonary application to explore nano-strategies for improving the bioavailability of pulmonary pharmaceutical formulations.

Plant oils: From chemical composition to encapsulated form use

The last decade has witnessed a burgeoning global movement towards essential and vegetable oils in the food, agriculture, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and textile industries thanks to their natural and safe status, broad acceptance by consumers, and versatile functional properties. However, efforts to develop new therapy or functional agents based on plant oils have met with challenges of limited stability and/or reduced efficacy. As a result, there has been increased research interest in the encapsulation of plant oils, whereby the nanocarriers serve as barrier between plant oils and the environment and control oil release leading to improved efficacy, reduced toxicity and enhanced patient compliance and convenience. In this review, special concern has been addressed to the encapsulation of essential and vegetable oils in three types of nanocarriers: polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles. First, the chemical composition of essential and vegetable oils was handled. Moreover, we gather together the research findings reported by the literature regarding the different techniques used to generate these nanocarriers with their significant findings. Finally, differences and similarities between these nanocarriers are discussed, along with current and future applications that are warranted by their structures and properties.

Lipid-based nanostructures as a strategy to enhance curcumin bioaccessibility: Behavior under digestion and cytotoxicity assessment

The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavior of different lipid-based nanostructures during in vitro digestion, in particular on curcumin's bioaccessibility, and to access their potential toxicity. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) and nanoemulsions (NE) were submitted to harmonized static in vitro digestion and their cytotoxicity and cellular transport were evaluated using Caco-2 cell line. NE presented the highest curcumin's bioaccessibility followed by NLC and SLN, 71.1%, 63.7% and 53.3%, respectively. Free fatty acids percentage increased in the following order: NLC ≤ NE < SLN. Non-digested nanostructures and excipients presented no cytotoxicity; however, digested NE and NLC presented cytotoxicity due to MCT oil, which presented cytotoxicity after digestion. The apparent permeability coefficient of NLC was higher than SLN and NE. These results showed that lipid-based nanostructures' physical state and composition have a high influence on particles' behavior during digestion, and on their cytotoxicity/intestinal permeability, and highlights the importance of conducting cytotoxicity assessments after in vitro digestion. This work contributes to a better understanding of the behavior of lipid-based nanostructures under digestion/adsorption, and this knowledge will be useful in design of nanostructures that afford both safety and an increased bioactive compounds' bioavailability.

Effect of the Surfactant and Liquid Lipid Type in the Physico-chemical Characteristics of Beeswax-based Nanostructured Lipid Carrier (NLC) of Metformin

BACKGROUND

Metformin (MF) is an antidiabetic drug that belongs to class III of the biopharmaceutical classification system (BCS) characterized by high solubility and low permeability.

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to prepare metformin as nanostructured lipid carriers (MF-NLCs) to control the drug release and enhance its permeability through the biological membrane.

METHODS

2² full factorial design was used to make the design of MF-NLCs formulations. MFNLCs were prepared by hot-melt homogenization-ultra sonication technique using beeswax as solid lipid in the presence of liquid lipid (either capryol 90 or oleic acid) and surfactant (either poloxamer 188 or tween 80).

RESULTS

The entrapment efficiency (EE%) of MF-NLCs was ranged from 85.2±2.5 to 96.5±1.8%. The particle size was in the nanoscale (134.6±4.1 to 264.1±4.6 nm). The value of zeta potential has a negative value ranged from -25.6±1.1 to -39.4±0.9 mV. The PDI value was in the range of 0.253±0.01 to 0.496±0.02. The cumulative drug release was calculated for MF-NLCs and it was found that Q_12h ranged from 90.5±1.7% for MF-NLC1 to 99.3±2.8 for MF-NLC4. Infra-red (IR) spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies revealed the compatibility of the drug with other ingredients. MF-NLC4 was found to be the optimized formulation with the best responses.

CONCLUSION

2² full factorial design succeed to obtain an optimized formulation which controls the drug release and increases the drug penetration.

Comprehensive Study of Atorvastatin Nanostructured Lipid Carriers through Multivariate Conceptualization and Optimization

The aim of the current study is to establish a comprehensive experimental design for the screening and optimization of Atorvastatin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (AT-NLCs). Initially, combined D-optimal screening design was applied to find the most significant factors affecting AT-NLCs properties. The studied variables included mixtures of solid and liquid lipids, the solid/liquid lipid ratio, surfactant type and concentration, homogenization speed as well as sonication time. Then, the variables homogenization speed (A), the ratio of solid lipid/liquid lipid (B), and concentration of the surfactant (C) were optimized using a central composite design. Particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency were chosen as dependent responses. The optimized AT-NLCs demonstrated a nanometric size (83.80 ± 1.13 nm), Polydispersity Index (0.38 ± 0.02), surface charge (-29.65 ± 0.65 mV), and high drug incorporation (93.1 ± 0.04%). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis showed no chemical interaction between Atorvastatin and the lipid mixture. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis of the AT-NLCs suggested the transformation of Atorvastatin crystal into an amorphous state. Administration of the optimized AT-NLCs led to a significant reduction (p < 0.001) in serum levels of rats' total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoproteins. This change was histologically validated by reducing the relevant steatosis of the liver.

Rhamnolipids-based nanostructured lipid carriers: Effect of lipid phase on physicochemical properties and stability

In this work rhamnolipids were evaluated as surfactants for the production of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). NLCs were produced by melt-emulsification using ultra-homogenisation followed by ultrasonication and different ratios of medium-chain-triglycerides and glycerol monostearate (lipid phase) were tested. NLCs presented sizes and polydispersity index values ranged between 97 and 120 nm and 0.20-0.26, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy observations confirmed the size and the spherical morphology of the NLCs. The thermal analysis and X-ray diffraction showed that the amount of solid lipid (glycerol monostearate) influences the melting, crystallisation and enthalpy of NLCs and their degree of crystallinity. Results showed that NLCs were more stable at 4 °C and the best formulation (1% of water phase, 0.05% of biosurfactant and solid:liquid ratio of 10:90) was stable for 30 days. This work showed the possibility of using rhamnolipids to produce NLCs and represent an important step for the development of lipid-based nanosystems using biosurfactants.

Effects of edible coatings of Chlorella sp. containing pomegranate seed oil on quality of Spondias tuberosa fruit during cold storage

Spondias tuberosa is a highly perishable fruit that is difficult to transport, which limits its consumption in local areas. Thus, for economic reasons, there is a need for technologies to extend post-harvest shelf life of these fruits. The aim of this study was to evaluate the life of Spondias tuberosa fruit using edible coatings composed of Chlorella sp. and pomegranate seed oil (PSO) during cold storage. Coated and uncoated S. tuberosa fruits were stored for 12 days at 14 ± 2 °C and 85 ± 5% RH and evaluated every 3 days. Chlorella sp. + PSO coatings retarded ripening, maintained firmness, mass, and a greener color when compared to control treatment - since by default controls are not treated. Coatings in association with the best quality fruit presented 2.0% of Chlorella sp.

Conjugated linoleic acid loaded nanostructured lipid carrier as a potential antioxidant nanocarrier for food applications

The encapsulation of fatty acids in nanocarrier systems is a very effective technique in improving their biological efficiency and controlled delivery. Nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) is a major type of lipid-based nanoparticle. This study is focused on producing nanolipid carrier containing conjugated linoleic acid and fortifying low-fat milk using this nanoparticle. Nanostructured lipid carriers were produced by hot high-shear homogenization containing 1.5% Poloxamer 407, cocoa butter as solid lipid, and conjugated linoleic acid as liquid oil in ratio of 10:1. Results showed that the nanoparticles sized 81 nm with monomodular dispersity and the system was stable at 4 and 22°C for 40 days. Zeta potential and encapsulation efficiency (%EE) were -15.8 mV and 98.2%, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the particles are in spiral form and small size and no significant aggregation was observed because of few changes in the system turbidity after storage time. The result of oxidative stability showed that using Nanostructured lipid carriers system resulted in lower malone dialdehyde production. Conjugated linoleic acid was protected at level of 3.9% of milk fatty acids in Nanostructured lipid carrier formulation during storage time. Based on these findings, Nanostructured lipid carriers system is an appropriate and stable nanocarrier system for delivery of nutraceuticals in foods and can be used in protecting them against oxidation, heating, and other processes in order to fortify foods and beverages.

β-Sitosterol Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier: Physical and Oxidative Stability, In Vitro Simulated Digestion and Hypocholesterolemic Activity

The objective of the present study was to explore the potential of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) for improving the oral delivery of β-sitosterol, a poorly water-soluble bioactive component with hypocholesterolemic activity. Two β-sitosterol formulations with different solid lipid compositions were prepared by melt emulsification, followed by the sonication technique, and the effect of storage conditions and simulated digestion on the physical, chemical and oxidative stability, bioaccessibility and release were extensively studied. Both NLC preparations remained relatively stable during the four weeks of storage at different conditions (4, 25 and 40 °C), with more superior stability at lower temperatures. The in vitro digestion experiment indicated a high physical stability after exposure to the simulated mouth and stomach stages and an improved overall β-sitosterol bioaccessibility at the end of the digestion. The NLCs presented an increased solubility and gradual release which could be justified by the remarkable affinity of β-sitosterol to the complex lipid mixture. An in vivo study demonstrated an improved reduction in the total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol plasma levels in mice compared with the drug suspension. These investigations evidenced the potential of the developed NLC formulations for the enhancement of solubility and in vivo performance of β-sitosterol.