Allergenicity reduction of cow’s milk proteins using latex peptidases

Peptides with biological and technofunctional properties produced by bromelain hydrolysis of proteins from different sources: A review

Bromelains are cysteine peptidases with endopeptidase action (a subfamily of papains), obtained from different parts of vegetable belonging to the Bromeliaceae family. They have some intrinsic medical activity, but this review is focused on their application (individually or mixed with other proteases) to produce bioactive peptides. When compared to other proteases, perhaps due to the fact that they are commercialized as an extract containing several proteases, the hydrolysates produced by this enzyme tends to have higher bioactivities than other common proteases. The peptides and the intensity of their final properties depend on the substrate protein and reaction conditions, being the degree of hydrolysis a determining parameter (but not always positive or negative). The produced peptides may have diverse activities such as antioxidant, antitumoral, antihypertensive or antimicrobial ones, among others or they may be utilized to improve the organoleptic properties of foods and feeds. Evolution of the use of this enzyme in this application is proposed to be based on a more intense direct application of Bromeliaceae extract, without the cost associated to enzyme purification, and the use of immobilized biocatalysts of the enzyme by simplifying the enzyme recovery and reuse, and also making the sequential hydrolysis using diverse proteases possible.

Assessment of the Efficiency of Technological Processes to Modify Whey Protein Antigenicity

Whey is a by-product that represents a cheap source of protein with a high nutritional value, often used to improve food quality. When used as a raw material to produce hypoallergenic infant formulas (HIF), a processing step able to decrease the allergenic potential is required to guarantee their safe use for this purpose. In the present paper, thermal treatments, high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), and enzymatic hydrolysis (EH) were assessed to decrease the antigenicity of whey protein solutions (WPC). For monitoring purposes, a competitive ELISA method, able to detect the major and most allergenic whey protein β-lactoglobulin (BLG), was developed as a first step to evaluate the efficiency of the processes. Results showed that EH together with HHP was the most effective combination to reduce WPC antigenicity. The evaluation method proved useful to monitor the processes and to be employed in the quality control of the final product, to guarantee the efficiency, and in protein antigenicity reduction.

Peptide profiles and allergy-reactivity of extensive hydrolysates of milk protein

Milk protein concentrate (MPC) is one of the major allergens in food. This study aimed to analyze the peptide profiles and potential allergenicity of the extensive hydrolysates of MPC (EMPHs) using the peptidomics approach. Results demonstrated that when the hydrolysis time was 4 h, the degree of hydrolysis of the four EMPHs (AX, Alcalase-Protamex), (AD, Alcalase-Protease A 2SD), (AE, Alcalase-Flavourzyme) and (AH, Alcalase-ProteAXH) were 12.45 %, 18.48 %, 18.87 % and 16.77 %, respectively. The results of size exclusion chromatography showed no significant difference, when the hydrolysis time exceeded 3 h. A total of 16 allergic peptides were identified in the EMPHs by LC-MS/MS. The peptide profiles and the coverage of master protein of the four EMPHs were different. The results of the enzyme-linked immunoassay and KU812 cell model showed that the allergenicity of the EMPHs samples was significantly reduced. This study provided strong support for the application of EMPHs in hypoallergenic formula foods.

Latex peptidases produce peptides capable of delaying fungal growth in bread

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been reported to be promising alternatives to chemical preservatives. Thus, this study aimed to characterise AMPs generated from the hydrolysis of wheat gluten proteins using latex peptidases of Calotropis procera, Cryptostegia grandiflora, and Carica papaya. The three hydrolysates (obtained after 16 h at 37 °C, using a 1: 25 enzyme:  substrate ratio) inhibited the growth of Aspergillus niger, A. chevalieri, Trichoderma reesei, Pythium oligandrum, Penicillium sp., and Lasiodiplodia sp. by 60-90%, and delayed fungal growth on bread by 3 days when used at 0.3 g/kg. Moreover, the specific volume and expansion factor of bread were not affected by the hydrolysates. Of 28 peptides identified, four were synthesised and exhibited activity against Penicillium sp. Fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy suggested that the peptides damaged the fungal plasma membrane. Bioinformatics analysis showed that no peptide was toxic and that the antigenic ones had cleavage sites for trypsin or pepsin.

Evaluation of allergenicity of cow milk treated with enzymatic hydrolysis through a mouse model of allergy

Cow milk (CM) allergy is a worldwide concern. Currently, few studies have been performed on the immunoreactivity of CM and fewer still on the antigenicity of CM in vivo and in vitro. In this study, we assessed the potential allergenicity of enzymatically hydrolyzed CM using in vitro ELISA and oral sensitization and challenge of BALB/c mice. Alcalase-, Protamex-, and Flavourzyme-treated CM (all from Novozymes) diminished IgE binding capacity, with greatest reductions of 56.31%, 50.62%, and 56.45%, respectively. Allergic symptoms and levels of total IgG1 were reduced, and allergic inflammation of the lung, jejunum, and spleen was relieved. Moreover, the numbers of CD8+ T and B220+ cells decreased, and the balance of CD4+ T/CD8+ T cells was effectively regulated. These findings suggest that the potential allergenicity of CM was reduced by enzymatic hydrolysis, and our research will lay a solid foundation for developing high-quality hypoallergenic CM products.

Serine carboxypeptidases from the carnivorous plant Nepenthes mirabilis: Partial characterization and heterologous expression

This study aimed to partially characterize the three main serine carboxypeptidases (SCP3, SCP20, and SCP47) from Nepenthes mirabilis. Furthermore, one peptidase (SCP3) was chosen for further heterologous expression in Escherichia coli Shuffle®T7. SCP3 also was characterized in terms of its allergenic potential using bioinformatics tools. SCP3, SCP20, and SCP47 showed very similar 3D structures and mechanistic features to other plant serine peptidases belonging to clan SC and family S10. Although SCP3 was obtained in its soluble form, using 1% ethanol during induction with 0.5 mM IPTG at 16 °C for 18 h, it did not show proteolytic activity by zymography or in vitro analysis. SCP3 presented a few allergenic peptides and several cleavage sites for digestive enzymes. This work describes additional features of these enzymes, opening new perspectives for further studies for characterization and analysis of heterologous expression, as well as their potential biotechnological applications.

Dielectric-barrier discharge (DBD) plasma treatment reduces IgG binding capacity of β-lactoglobulin by inducing structural changes

The present study investigated the effects of dielectric-barrier-discharge (DBD) plasma treatment (12 kHz, 40 kV) at 1, 2, 3, and 4 min on the reduction of the immunoglobulin G (IgG) binding capacity of β-lactoglobulin (β-LG). The IgG binding capacity of β-LG was reduced by 58.21% following a plasma treatment time of 4 min, as confirmed by western-blot and ELISA analyses. The reduction in IgG binding capacity of β-LG was directly related to a stepwise change in its structure. The initial drop in the IgG binding capacity of β-LG was found to be caused by conformational alteration, free sulfhydryl exposure and cross-linkage of molecules induced by oxidation of NH-/NH₂- functional groups of peptide bonds and of sensitive amino acid residues (Tyr, Trp) as confirmed by SDS-PAGE, surface hydrophobicity and multi-spectroscopic analyses. Plasma treatment of more than 3 min resulted in cleavage of disulfidebonds and fragmentation of β-LG that was confirmed by LC-MS/MS analysis, which resulted a further decline in the IgG binding capacity of β-LG. Plasma treatment therefore has great potential as a substitute treatment for enzymatic hydrolysis for the production of hypoallergenic milk protein-based products.

Combining experimental techniques with molecular dynamics to investigate the impact of different enzymatic hydrolysis of β-lactoglobulin on the antigenicity reduction

β-Lactoglobulin (β-LG) is one of the major food allergens. Enzymatic hydrolysis is a promising strategy to reduce the antigenicity of β-LG in industrial production. The relationship between the cleavage sites of β-LG by protease and its antigenic active sites were explored in this study. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) were used to analyze the active sites and interaction force of β-LG and IgG antibody. Whey protein was hydrolyzed by four specific enzymes and the antigenicity of the hydrolysates were determined by ELISA. The results of MD showed that the amino acid residue Gln155 (-4.48 kcal mol^-1) played the most important roles in the process of binding. Hydrolysates produced by AY-10, which was the only one with specificity towards cleavage sites next to a Gln, had the lowest antigenicity at the same hydrolysis degree. Antigenicity decrease was related to the energy contribution of the cleavage site in the active sites.

Effects of enzymatic treatments on the hydrolysis and antigenicity reduction of natural cow milk

Cow milk (CM) allergy is one of the most common food allergies worldwide; the most abundant CM proteins, such as casein (CN), β-lactoglobulin (β-LG), and ɑ-lactalbumin (ɑ-LA), are all potentially allergenic. Reducing the antigenicity of CM continues to be a major challenge. However, previous studies have focused on the antigenicity of individual allergic CM proteins. Thus, in the present study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of different food-grade enzymes on the antigenicity of CN, β-LG, ɑ-LA in natural CM. The degree of hydrolysis (DH) and molecular mass (MW) distribution of CM hydrolysates were assessed. Additionally, the residual antigenicity of CM hydrolysates was evaluated through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blotting with anti-CN, anti-β-LG, and anti-ɑ-LA rabbit polyclonal antibodies. The results showed that Alcalase- and Protamex-mediated hydrolysis could efficiently reduce the antigenicity of CN, β-LG, and ɑ-LA, inducing a higher DH, the loss of density of CM proteins, and the increasing levels of low MW (<3 kDa) peptides in CM hydrolysates. Further, Protamex and Alcalase could more efficiently hydrolyze the major allergenic components of CM than the other enzymes, which could represent an advantage for the development of hypoallergenic CM. These findings add further knowledge about the study and development of hypoallergenic CM.

Protein function analysis of germinated Moringa oleifera seeds, and purification and characterization of their milk-clotting peptidase

The present study aimed to investigate the biological functions of germinated M. oleifera seed proteins and to identify the identity of milk-clotting proteases. A total of 963 proteins were identified, and those with molecular weights between 10 and 30 kDa were most abundant. The identified proteins were mainly involved in energy-associated catalytic activity and metabolic processes, and carbohydrate and protein metabolisms. The numbers of proteins associated with the hydrolytic and catalytic activities were higher than the matured dry M. oleifera seeds reported previously. Of the identified proteins, proteases were mainly involved in the milk-clotting activity. Especially, a cysteine peptidase with a molecular mass of 17.727 kDa exhibiting hydrolase and peptidase activities was purified and identified. The identified cysteine peptidase was hydrophilic, and its secondary structure consisted of 27.60% alpha helix, 9.20% beta fold, and 63.20% irregular curl; its tertiary structure was also constructed using M. oleifera seed 2S protein as the protein template. The optimal pH and temperature of the purified protease were pH 4.0 and 60 °C, respectively. The protease had high acidic stability and good thermostability, thus could potentially be applied in the dairy industry.

Reducing the allergenicity of pea protein based on the enzyme action of alcalase

Enzymatic hydrolysis could be one of the crucial means to limit the allergenicity of allergens. The allergenicity of pea peptides was evaluated using indirect ELISA and RBL-2H3 cell assay, thereby obtaining hypoallergenic pea peptide sequences. Results indicated that pea protein-sensitized mice produced higher levels of total IgG1 and IgE antibodies than the mice in the control group (P < 0.05). Moreover, the allergenicity of hydrolysates decreased significantly after enzymolysis, and the allergenicity of ultrafiltration component F1 and purified component F1-2 was significantly lower than that of other isolated and purified components (P < 0.05). Furthermore, ADLYNPR identified from F1-2 had lower binding capacity to specific IgE and IgG1 and lower degree of cell degranulation with a higher EC50 value of 6.63 ng mL-1, which was about 36.83 times that of pea protein (P < 0.05). Based on the above results, ADLYNPR might be a potential source of hypoallergenic peptides.

A novel approach to ameliorate experimental milk allergy based on the oral administration of a short soy cross-reactive peptide

Food allergy is on the rise, and preventive/therapeutic procedures are needed. We explored a preventive protocol for milk allergy with the oral administration of a Gly-m-Bd-30K soy-derived peptide that contains cross-reactive epitopes with bovine caseins. B/T-cross-reactive epitopes were mapped using milk-specific human sera and monoclonal antibodies on overlapping and recombinant peptides of Gly-m-Bd-30K by SPOT and cell proliferation assays. Bioinformatics tools were used to characterize epitopes on the 3D-modelled molecule, and to predict the binding to HLA alleles. The peptide was orally administrated to mice that were then IgE-sensitized to milk proteins. Immunodominant B-epitopes were mainly located on the surface of the Nt-fragment. The use of a soy-peptide-containing an immunodominant cross-reactive T-epitope, along with a single B epitope, prevents IgE-mediated milk sensitization through the induction of Th1-mediated immunity and induction of blocking IgG. The use of a safe soy-peptide may represent a promising alternative for preventing milk allergy.

Conformational changes in bovine α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin evoked by interaction with C18 unsaturated fatty acids provide insights into increased allergic potential

Bovine α-lactalbumin (BLA) and β-lactoglobulin (BLG) are the most common and severe food allergens in milk and they can bind C18 unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) and their bioactivities were changed. This study aims to determine the effects of C18 UFAs on the structures of BLA and BLG and their allergic properties, such as antigenicity and allergenicity. We reveal that C18 UFAs can efficiently promote the gradual unfolding of the structures of BLA and BLG and increase their hydrophobicity. Moreover, the IgG binding ability and the expression of IgG-dependent activation marker CD200R3 on basophils were remarkably promoted after C18 UFA treatment. Finally, we also observed that C18 UFAs can enhance the IgE binding ability and the degranulation capacity of human basophil KU812 cells (intracellular Ca2+, histamine, β-Hex, and IL-6). Collectively, these results suggested that C18 UFAs changed the structures of BLA and BLG, which contributed to their increased allergic potential.

Cholera toxin induces food allergy through Th2 cell differentiation which is unaffected by Jagged2

AIMS

Cholera toxin is often used to induce food allergies. However, its exact mode of action and effect remain ambiguous. In this study, we established a BALB/c mouse cholera toxin/ovalbumin-induced food allergy model to determine the molecular basis and signaling mechanisms of the immune regulation of cholera toxin during food allergy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The adjuvant activity of cholera toxin was analyzed by establishing mouse allergy model, and the allergic reaction of each group of mice was evaluated. The effect of cholera toxin on Th1/Th2 cell differentiation was analyzed to further explore the role of cholera toxin in allergen immune response. We stimulated bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) with cholera toxin in vitro to investigate the effect of cholera toxin on Notch ligand expression. BMDCs and naive CD4⁺T cells were co-cultured in vitro, and their cytokine levels were examined to investigate whether cholera toxin regulates Th cell differentiation via the Jagged2 Notch signaling pathway.

KEY FINDINGS

The results showed that in the presence of allergens, cholera toxin promotes Th2 cell differentiation and enhances the body's immune response. Cholera toxin induces expression of the Notch ligand Jagged2, but Jagged2 Notch signaling pathway is not required to promote BMDCs-mediated differentiation of Th2 cells.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study initially revealed the mechanism by which cholera toxin plays an adjuvant role in food allergy, and provides reference for future related research.

Standardized production of a homogeneous latex enzyme source overcoming seasonality and microenvironmental variables

Calotropis procera produces a milky sap containing proteolytic enzymes. At low concentrations, they induce milk-clotting (60 µg/ml) and to dehair hides (0.05 and 0.1%). A protocol for obtaining the enzymes is reported. The latex was mixed with distilled water and the mixture was cleaned through centrifugation. It was dialyzed with distilled water and centrifuged again to recover the soluble fraction [EP]. The dialyze is a key feature of the process. EP was characterized in terms of protein profile, chemical stability, among other criteria. Wild plants belonging to ten geographic regions and grown in different ecological conditions were used as latex source. Collections were carried out, spaced at three-month, according to the seasons at the site of the study. Proteolytic activity was measured as an internal marker and for determining stability of the samples. EP was also analyzed for metal content and microbiology. EP showed similar magnitude of proteolysis, chromatographic and electrophoretic profiles of proteins. Samples stored at 25 °C exhibited reduced solubility (11%) and proteolytic capacity (11%) after six months. Enzyme autolysis was negligible. Microbiological and metal analyses revealed standard quality of all the samples tested. EP induced milk clotting and hide dehairing after storage for up to six months.

Reducing antigenicity of bovine whey proteins by Kluyveromyces marxianus fermentation combined with ultrasound treatment

This work investigated the reduction of bovine whey proteins antigenicity by ultrasonic pretreatment and microbial fermentation. Firstly, bovine whey proteins was pretreated by ultrasonic techniques, and its secondary structure was detected by circular dichroism. The pretreated whey proteins was used as the fermentation substrate by Kluyveromyces marxianus for microbial transformation. The single factor design and Box-Behnken Design (BBD) were carried out with the aim to optimize culture temperature, initial pH, inoculum volume and rotation speed. After optimization process, culture temperature, initial pH, inoculum volume and rotation speed were determined. Under culture temperature 35 °C, pH 7.25, inoculum level 10% and shaking speed 150 rpm, the α-LA and β-LG antigenicity in bovine whey proteins were reduced by 29% and 53%, respectively. The findings showed that combined with microbial fermentation for hydrolysis of whey proteins, ultrasonic pretreatment can be used in order to produce hypoallergenic bovine whey proteins.

Effect of ultrasonic-ionic liquid pretreatment on the hydrolysis degree and antigenicity of enzymatic hydrolysates from whey protein

With the aim to reduce the antigenicity of whey protein hydrolysate in milk, the pretreatment method of coupling ultrasonic and ionic liquid (US-IL) and further enzymatic treatments were studied. Papain and alcalase were found to be suitable for ultrasonic-ionic liquid pretreatment. After ultrasound-ionic liquid treatment, the antigenic decline rates of ALA and BLG upon alcalase hydrolysis were 82.82% and 88.01%, and that of the papain hydrolysis was 81.87% and 88.46%, respectively. Upon ultrasonic-ionic liquid pretreatment, the molecular weight of whey protein did not change significantly, but the small molecular weight proportion of components in the enzymatic hydrolysate obviously increased. The findings showed that combining with US-IL pretreatment for further protease hydrolysis of whey proteins, the hydrolysate can be used in order to produce hypoallergenic bovine whey proteins.

Structure-Based Identification and Design of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-Inhibitory Peptides from Whey Proteins

Besides their nutritional value, whey protein (WP) peptides are food components retaining important pharmacological properties for controlling hypertension. We herein report how the use of complementary experimental and theoretical investigations allowed the identification of novel angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory (ACEI) peptides obtained from a WP hydrolysate and addressed the rational design of even shorter sequences based on molecular pruning. Thus, after bromelain digestion followed by a 5 kDa cutoff ultrafiltration, WP hydrolysate with ACEI activity was fractioned by RP-HPLC; 2 out of 23 collected fractions retained ACEI activity and were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In the face of 128 identified peptides, molecular docking was carried out to prioritize peptides and to rationally guide the design of novel shorter and bioactive sequences. Therefore, 11 peptides, consisting of 3-6 amino acids and with molecular weights in the range from 399 to 674 Da, were rationally designed and then purchased to determine the IC₅₀ value. This approach allowed the identification of two novel peptides: MHI and IAEK with IC₅₀ ACEI values equal to 11.59 and 25.08 μM, respectively. Interestingly, we also confirmed the well-known ACEI IPAVF with an IC₅₀ equal to 9.09 μM. In light of these results, this integrated approach could pave the way for high-throughput screening and identification of new peptides in dairy products. In addition, the herein proposed ACEI peptides could be exploited for novel applications both for food production and pharmaceuticals.

Identification, characterization, and antifungal activity of cysteine peptidases from Calotropis procera latex

Cysteine peptidases (EC 3.4.22) are the most abundant enzymes in latex fluids. However, their physiological functions are still poorly understood, mainly related to defense against phytopathogens. The present study reports the cDNA cloning and sequencing of five undescribed cysteine peptidases from Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand (Apocynaceae) as well as some in silico analyses. Of these, three cysteine peptidases (CpCP1, CpCP2, and CpCP3) were purified. Their enzymatic kinetics were determined and they were assayed for their efficacy in inhibiting the hyphal growth of phytopathogenic fungi. The mechanism of action was investigated by fluorescence and atomic force microscopy as well as by induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The deduced amino acid sequences showed similar biochemical characteristics and high sequence homology with several other papain-like cysteine peptidases. Three-dimensional models showed two typical cysteine peptidase domains (L and R domains), forming a "V-shaped" active site containing the catalytic triad (Cys, His, and Asn). Proteolysis of CpCP1 was higher at pH 7.0, whereas for CpCP2 and CpCP3 it was higher at 7.5. All peptidases exhibited optimum activity at 35 °C and followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics. However, the major difference among them was that CpCP1 exhibited highest V_max, K_m, K_cat and catalytic efficiency. All peptidases were deleterious to the two fungi tested, with IC₅₀ of around 50 μg/mL. The peptidases promoted membrane permeabilization, morphological changes with leakage of cellular content, and induction of ROS in F. oxysporum spores. These results corroborate the hypothesis that latex cysteine peptidases play a role in defense against fungi.