Transrutinosylation of tyrosol by flower buds of Sophora japonica

Rutinosidase and other diglycosidases: Rising stars in biotechnology

Diglycosidases are a special class of glycosidases (EC 3.2.1) that catalyze the separation of intact disaccharide moieties from the aglycone part. The main diglycosidase representatives comprise rutinosidases that cleave rutinose (α-l-Rha-(1-6)-β-d-Glc) from rutin or other rutinosides, and (iso)primeverosidases processing (iso)primeverosides (d-Xyl-(1-6)-β-d-Glc), but other activities are known. Notably, some diglycosidases may be ranked as monoglucosidases with enlarged substrate specificity. Diglycosidases are found in various microorganisms and plants. Diglycosidases are used in the food industry for aroma enhancement and flavor modification. Besides their hydrolytic activity, they also possess pronounced synthetic (transglycosylating) capabilities. Recently, they have been demonstrated to glycosylate various substrates in a high yield, including peculiar species like inorganic azide or carboxylic acids, which is a unique feature in biocatalysis. Rhamnose-containing compounds such as rutinose are currently receiving increased attention due to their proven activity in anti-cancer and dermatological experimental studies. This review demonstrates the vast and yet underrated biotechnological potential of diglycosidases from various sources (plant, microbial), and reveals perspectives on the use of these catalysts as well as of their products in biotechnology.

Flavonoids as Aglycones in Retaining Glycosidase-Catalyzed Reactions: Prospects for Green Chemistry

Flavonoids and their glycosides are abundant in many plant-based foods. The (de)glycosylation of flavonoids by retaining glycoside hydrolases has recently attracted much interest in basic and applied research, including the possibility of altering the glycosylation pattern of flavonoids. Research in this area is driven by significant differences in physicochemical, organoleptic, and bioactive properties between flavonoid aglycones and their glycosylated counterparts. While many flavonoid glycosides are present in nature at low levels, some occur in substantial quantities, making them readily available low-cost glycosyl donors for transglycosylations. Retaining glycosidases can be used to synthesize natural and novel glycosides, which serve as standards for bioactivity experiments and analyses, using flavonoid glycosides as glycosyl donors. Engineered glycosidases also prove valuable for the synthesis of flavonoid glycosides using chemically synthesized activated glycosyl donors. This review outlines the bioactivities of flavonoids and their glycosides and highlights the applications of retaining glycosidases in the context of flavonoid glycosides, acting as substrates, products, or glycosyl donors in deglycosylation or transglycosylation reactions.

Acuminosylation of Tyrosol by a Commercial Diglycosidase

A commercial glycosidase mixture obtained from Penicillium multicolor (Aromase H2) was found to comprise a specific diglycosidase activity, β-acuminosidase, alongside undetectable levels of β-apiosidase. The enzyme was tested in the transglycosylation of tyrosol using 4-nitrophenyl β-acuminoside as the diglycosyl donor. The reaction was not chemoselective, providing a mixture of Osmanthuside H and its counterpart regioisomer 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)phenyl β-acuminoside in 58% yield. Aromase H2 is therefore the first commercial β-acuminosidase which is also able to glycosylate phenolic acceptors.

Medium engineering of phenylethanoid transfructosylation catalysed by yeast β-fructofuranosidase

Tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol, by-products of olive oil production, are valuable substrates for enzymatic transglycosylation that can provide products with pharmaceutical potential. Phenylethanoid fructosides are produced from sucrose and phenylethanoids by the catalytic action of β-fructofuranosidases. This work dealt with the potential of the most abundant β-fructofuranosidase, baker's yeast invertase, for this bioconversion. The effects of sucrose and phenylethanoid concentrations were investigated with a focus on the selectivity of phenylethanoid transfructosylation and fructoside yields. For this purpose, initial rate and progress curve experiments were carried out for the initial (hydroxy)tyrosol and sucrose concentrations of 0.072-0.3 M and 1-2 M, respectively. Reaction courses exhibited either a maximum or plateau of fructoside yield in the range of about 10-18%. The addition of deep eutectic solvents was applied in the concentration range from 5 to 70% (v/v) to investigate the possibility of shifting the reaction equilibrium towards fructoside synthesis.

Synthesis of Tyrosol and Hydroxytyrosol Glycofuranosides and Their Biochemical and Biological Activities in Cell-Free and Cellular Assays

Tyrosol (T) and hydroxytyrosol (HOT) and their glycosides are promising candidates for applications in functional food products or in complementary therapy. A series of phenylethanoid glycofuranosides (PEGFs) were synthesized to compare some of their biochemical and biological activities with T and HOT. The optimization of glycosylation promoted by environmentally benign basic zinc carbonate was performed to prepare HOT α-L-arabino-, β-D-apio-, and β-D-ribofuranosides. T and HOT β-D-fructofuranosides, prepared by enzymatic transfructosylation of T and HOT, were also included in the comparative study. The antioxidant capacity and DNA-protective potential of T, HOT, and PEGFs on plasmid DNA were determined using cell-free assays. The DNA-damaging potential of the studied compounds for human hepatoma HepG2 cells and their DNA-protective potential on HepG2 cells against hydrogen peroxide were evaluated using the comet assay. Experiments revealed a spectrum of different activities of the studied compounds. HOT and HOT β-D-fructofuranoside appear to be the best-performing scavengers and protectants of plasmid DNA and HepG2 cells. T and T β-D-fructofuranoside display almost zero or low scavenging/antioxidant activity and protective effects on plasmid DNA or HepG2 cells. The results imply that especially HOT β-D-fructofuranoside and β-D-apiofuranoside could be considered as prospective molecules for the subsequent design of supplements with potential in food and health protection.

Two fungal flavonoid-specific glucosidases/rutinosidases for rutin hydrolysis and rutinoside synthesis under homogeneous and heterogeneous reaction conditions

The glycosidases within GH5-23 cleave the glycosidic bond of β-glucosylated or rutinosylated flavonoids. Moreover, by virtue of their transglycosylation activity, glycoconjugates with glucosyl and rutinosyl moieties are accessible. Here we report the biochemical characterization and biotechnological assessment of two heterologously expressed members of GH5-23—McGlc from Mucor circinelloides and PcGlc from Penicillium chrysogenum. Both enzymes exhibited the highest hydrolytic activities with quercetin-3-β-O-glucopyranoside, whereas lower specificity constants were determined with the rutinosides narcissin, rutin and hesperidin. High stabilities against thermal, ethanol and dimethyl sulfoxide-induced inactivation, a very limited secondary hydrolysis of the formed transglycosylation products, and no detectable product inhibition were additional features appropriate for biotechnological applications. The enzymes were compared in their efficiencies to hydrolyze rutin and to synthesize 2-phenylethyl rutinoside under homogeneous and heterogeneous reaction conditions using high rutin concentrations of 100 and 300 mM. Highest transglycosylation efficiencies were achieved with fully dissolved rutin in reaction mixtures containing 25% dimethyl sulfoxide. Molecular docking and multiple sequence alignments suggest that the hydrophobic environment of aromatic residues within the + 1 subsite of GH5-23 glycosidases is very important for the binding of flavonoid glucosides and rutinosides.

Apiose-Relevant Glycosidases

Apiose is a branched pentose naturally occurring either as a component of the plant cell wall polysaccharides or as a sugar moiety present in numerous plant secondary metabolites such as flavonoid and phenylethanoid glycosides, substrates in plant defense systems or as glycosylated aroma precursors. The enzymes catalyzing hydrolysis of such apiosylated substances (mainly glycosidases specific towards apiose or acuminose) have promising applications not only in hydrolysis (flavor development), but potentially also in the synthesis of apiosides and apioglucosides with pharmaceutical relevance. This review summarizes the actual knowledge of glycosidases recognizing apiose and their potential application in biocatalysis.