Structured lipids produced from palm-olein oil by interesterification: A controllable lipase-catalyzed approach in a solvent-free system

Batch and continuous enzymatic interesterification of beef tallow: Interesterification degree, reaction relationship, and physicochemical properties

The relationship between batch and continuous enzymatic interesterification was studied through enzymatic interesterification of beef tallow. The interesterification degree (ID) during the batch reaction was monitored based on triacylglycerol composition, sn-2 fatty acid composition, solid fat content, and melting profile and was described by an exponential model. A relationship equation featuring reaction parameters of the two reations was established to predict the ID and physicochemical characteristics in continuous interesterification. The prediction of the ID based on triacylglycerol composition was reliable, with an R2 value greater than 0.85. Interesterification produced more high-melting-point components for both reactions, but the acyl migration in the batch-stirring reactor was much greater, resulting in faster crystallization, a more delicate crystal network, and lower hardness. The relationship equation can be employed to predict the ID, but the prediction of physicochemical properties was constrained by the difference in acyl migration degree between the two reactions.

Recent Advances in Lipid Crystallization in the Food Industry

This review discusses fundamental concepts of fat crystallization and how various processing conditions such as crystallization temperature, cooling rate, and shear or agitation affect this process. Traditional methods used to process fats, such as the use of scraped surface heat exchangers, fractionation, and interesterification, are described. Parameters that affect fat crystallization in these systems, such as shear, crystallization temperature, type of fat, and type of process, are discussed. In addition, the use of minor components to induce or delay fat crystallization based on their chemical composition is presented. The use of novel technologies, such as high-intensity ultrasound, oleogelation, and high-pressure crystallization is also reviewed. In these cases, acoustic and high-pressure process parameters, the various types of oleogels, and the use of oleogelators of differing chemical compositions are discussed. The combination of all these techniques and future trends is also presented.

Nonconventional Technologies in Lipid Modifications

Lipid modifications play a crucial role in various fields, including food science, pharmaceuticals, and biofuel production. Traditional methods for lipid modifications involve physical and chemical approaches or enzymatic reactions, which often have limitations in terms of specificity, efficiency, and environmental impact. In recent years, nonconventional technologies have emerged as promising alternatives for lipid modifications. This review provides a comprehensive overview of nonconventional technologies for lipid modifications, including high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, ozonation, and cold plasma technology. The principles,mechanisms, and advantages of these technologies are discussed, along with their applications in lipid modification processes. Additionally, the challenges and future perspectives of nonconventional technologies in lipid modifications are addressed, highlighting the potential and challenges for further advancements in this field. The integration of nonconventional technologies with traditional methods has the potential to revolutionize lipid modifications, enabling the development of novel lipid-based products with enhanced functional properties and improved sustainability profiles.

Pickering emulsion stabilized by quercetin-β-cyclodextrin-diglyceride particles: Effect of diglyceride content on interfacial behavior and emulsifying property of complex particles

This research develops diacylglycerol (DAG) based Pickering emulsions with enhanced oxidative stability stabilized by self-assembled quercetin/DAG/β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) complexes (QDCCs) using a one-step agitation method. Influence of DAG content (5%, 15%, 40%, and 80%, w/w) on the self-assembly behavior, interfacial properties, and emulsifying ability of complex particles was investigated. SEM, XRD and ATR-FTIR studies confirmed the formation of ternary composite particles. QDCCs in 80% DAG oil had the highest quercetin encapsulation efficiency (6.09 ± 0.01%), highest DPPH radical scavenging rate and ferric reducing antioxidant property (FRAP). β-CD and quercetin adsorption rates in emulsion with 80% DAG oil were 88.4 ± 2.53% and 98.34 ± 0.15%, respectively. Pickering emulsions with 80% DAG had the smallest droplet size (8.90 ± 1.87 μm) and excellent oxidation stability. This research develops a novel approach to regulate the physicochemical stability of DAG-based emulsions by anchoring natural antioxidants at the oil-water interface through a one-pot self-assembly method.

Internal Factors Affecting the Crystallization of the Lipid System: Triacylglycerol Structure, Composition, and Minor Components

The process of lipid crystallization influences the characteristics of lipid. By changing the chemical composition of the lipid system, the crystallization behavior could be controlled. This review elucidates the internal factors affecting lipid crystallization, including triacylglycerol (TAG) structure, TAG composition, and minor components. The influence of these factors on the TAG crystal polymorphic form, nanostructure, microstructure, and physical properties is discussed. The interplay of these factors collectively influences crystallization across various scales. Variations in fatty acid chain length, double bonds, and branching, along with their arrangement on the glycerol backbone, dictate molecular interactions within and between TAG molecules. High-melting-point TAG dominates crystallization, while liquid oil hinders the process but facilitates polymorphic transitions. Unique molecular interactions arise from specific TAG combinations, yielding molecular compounds with distinctive properties. Nanoscale crystallization is significantly impacted by liquid oil and minor components. The interaction between the TAG and minor components determines the influence of minor components on the crystallization process. In addition, future perspectives on better design and control of lipid crystallization are also presented.

Esters in the Food and Cosmetic Industries: An Overview of the Reactors Used in Their Biocatalytic Synthesis

Esters are versatile compounds with a wide range of applications in various industries due to their unique properties and pleasant aromas. Conventionally, the manufacture of these compounds has relied on the chemical route. Nevertheless, this technique employs high temperatures and inorganic catalysts, resulting in undesired additional steps to purify the final product by removing solvent residues, which decreases environmental sustainability and energy efficiency. In accordance with the principles of "Green Chemistry" and the search for more environmentally friendly methods, a new alternative, the enzymatic route, has been introduced. This technique uses low temperatures and does not require the use of solvents, resulting in more environmentally friendly final products. Despite the large number of studies published on the biocatalytic synthesis of esters, little attention has been paid to the reactors used for it. Therefore, it is convenient to gather the scattered information regarding the type of reactor employed in these synthesis reactions, considering the industrial field in which the process is carried out. A comparison between the performance of the different reactor configurations will allow us to draw the appropriate conclusions regarding their suitability for each specific industrial application. This review addresses, for the first time, the above aspects, which will undoubtedly help with the correct industrial implementation of these processes.

Texture and volatile profiles of beef tallow substitute produced by a pilot-scale continuous enzymatic interesterification

Edible beef tallow (BT) has been widely used in Sichuan hotpot due to its unique flavor and texture. However, BT should not be consumed in excess caused by its trans-fatty acids and cholesterol issues. In this study, a BT substitute was prepared after enzymatic interesterification in a pilot-scale packed-bed reactor using soybean oil and fully hydrogenated palm oil (4:3, w/w) as feedstock. The products were characterized against BT in terms of fatty acid/triacylglycerol compositions, solid fat content, polymorphism, and melting/crystallization behaviors to select the most promising BT substitute. The optimal flow rate was 120 mL/min. Changes in volatile compounds during stir-frying and simmering were also investigated for Sichuan hotpots made with these two oils. The volatile compounds of BT substitute were similar to that of natural BT. The findings will contribute to expanding the base oil categories of Sichuan hotpot oils.

Continuous Production of Dietetic Structured Lipids Using Crude Acidic Olive Pomace Oils

Crude olive pomace oil (OPO) is a by-product of olive oil extraction. In this study, low-calorie structured triacylglycerols (TAGs) were produced by acidolysis of crude OPO with medium-chain fatty acids (caprylic, C8:0; capric, C10:0) or interesterification with their ethyl ester forms (C8EE, C10EE). These new TAGs present long-chain fatty acids (L) at position sn-2 and medium-chain fatty acids (M) at positions sn-1,3 (MLM). Crude OPO exhibited a high acidity (12.05–28.75% free fatty acids), and high contents of chlorophylls and oxidation products. Reactions were carried out continuously in a packed-bed bioreactor for 70 h, using sn-1,3 regioselective commercial immobilized lipases (Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase, Lipozyme TL IM; and Rhizomucor miehei lipase, Lipozyme RM IM), in solvent-free media at 40 °C. Lipozyme RM IM presented a higher affinity for C10:0 and C10EE. Lipozyme TL IM preferred C10:0 over C8:0 but C8EE over C10EE. Both biocatalysts showed a high activity and operational stability and were not affected by OPO acidity. The New TAG yields ranged 30–60 and the specific productivity ranged 0.96–1.87 g NewTAG/h.g biocatalyst. Lipozyme RM IM cost is more than seven-fold the Lipozyme TL IM cost. Therefore, using Lipozyme TL IM and crude acidic OPO in a continuous bioreactor will contribute to process sustainability for structured lipid production by lowering the cost of the biocatalyst and avoiding oil refining.