Sea bass protein-polyphenol complex stabilized high internal phase of algal oil Pickering emulsions to stabilize astaxanthin for 3D food printing

Advances of protein-based emulsion gels as fat analogues: Systematic classification, formation mechanism, and food application

Fat plays a pivotal role in the appearance, flavor, texture, and palatability of food. However, excessive fat consumption poses a significant risk for chronic ailments such as obesity, hypercholesterolemia, and cardiovascular disease. Therefore, the development of green, healthy, and stable protein-based emulsion gel as an alternative to traditional fats represents a novel approach to designing low-fat food. This paper reviews the emulsification behavior of proteins from different sources to gain a comprehensive understanding of their potential in the development of emulsion gels with fat-analog properties. It further investigates the emulsifying potential of protein combined with diverse substances. Then, the mechanisms of protein-stabilized emulsion gels with fat-analog properties are discussed, mainly involving single proteins, proteins-polysaccharides, as well as proteins-polyphenols. Moreover, the potential applications of protein emulsion gels as fat analogues in the food industry are also encompassed. By combining natural proteins with other components such as polysaccharides, polyphenols, or biopolymers, it is possible to enhance the stability of the emulsion gels and improve its fat-analog texture properties. In addition to their advantages in protecting oil oxidation, limiting hydrogenated oil intake, and delivering bioactive substances, protein-based emulsion gels have potential in food 3D printing and the development of specialty fats for plant-based meat.

Relationship between the interfacial properties of lactoferrin-(-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate covalent complex and the macroscopic properties of emulsions

This study explored the relationship between the interfacial behavior of lactoferrin-(-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate covalent complex (LF-EGCG) and the stability of high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs). The formation of covalent bond between lactoferrin and polyphenol was verified by the increase in molecular weight. In LF-EGCG group, the surface hydrophobicity, interfacial pressure, and adsorption rate were decreased, while the molecular flexibility, interfacial film viscoelasticity, and interfacial protein content were increased. Meanwhile, LF-EGCG HIPPE possessed reduced droplet size, increased ζ-potential and stability. Rheology showed the viscoelasticity, structural recovery and gel strength of LF-EGCG HIPPE were improved, giving HIPPE inks better 3D printing integrity and clarity. Moreover, the free fatty acids (FFA) release of LF-EGCG HIPPE (62.6%) was higher than that of the oil group (50.1%). Therefore, covalent treatment effectively improved the interfacial properties of protein particles and the stability of HIPPEs. The macroscopic properties of HIPPEs were positively regulated by the interfacial properties of protein particles. The result suggested that the stability of emulsions can be improved by regulating the interfacial properties of particles.

Effect of non-covalent binding of tannins to sodium caseinate on the stability of high-internal-phase fish oil emulsions

In this study, we designed the noncovalent binding of sodium caseinate (SC) to tannic acid (TA) to stabilize high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) used as fish oil delivery systems. Hydrogen bonding was the dominant binding force, followed by weak hydrophobic interaction and weak van der Waals forces, as demonstrated by FTIR, fluorescence spectroscopy, and molecular docking experiments, with a binding constant of 3.25 × 106, a binding site of 1.2, and a static quenching of the binding. Increasing SC:TA from SC to 2:1 decreased the particle size from 107.37 ± 10.66 to 76.07 ± 2.77 nm and the zeta potential from -6.99 ± 2.71 to -22 ± 2.42 mV. TA increased the interfacial tension of SC, decreased the surface hydrophobicity from 1.3 × 104 to 1.6 × 103 and improved the oxidation resistance of SC. The particle size of high internal phase emulsions stabilized by complexes with different mass ratios (SC:TA from 1:0 to 2:1) increased from 4.9 ± 0.02 to 12.9 μm, the potential increased from -32.37 ± 2.7 to -35.07 ± 2.58 mV, and the instability index decreased from 0.75 to 0.02. Thicker interfacial layers could be observed by laser confocal microscopy, and an increase in the storage modulus indicated a formation of a stronger gel network. SC:TA of 1:0 showed emulsion breakage after 14 d of storage at room temperature. SC:TA of 2:1 showed the lowest degree of oil-water separation after freeze-thaw treatment. Especially, the most stable high endo-phase emulsion (at SC:TA of 2:1) prepared at each mass ratio was selected for further stability exploration. The emulsion particle size increased only from 15.63 ± 0.06 to 22.27 ± 0.35 μm at salt ion concentrations of 50-200 mM and to 249.33 ± 31.79 μm at 300 mM. The instability index and storage modulus of the high endo-phase emulsions increased gradually with increasing salt ion concentrations. At different heating temperatures (55-85 °C), the instability index of the high internal phase emulsion gradually decreased and the storage modulus gradually increased. Meanwhile, at 50 °C for 15 d of accelerated oxidation, the content of hydroperoxide decreased from 53.32 ± 0.18 to 37.48 ± 0.77 nmol/g, about 29.7 %, and the thiobarbituric acid value decreased from 1.06 × 103 to 0.8 × 103, about 24.5 %, in the high endo-phase emulsions prepared by 2:1 SC:TA compared to the fish oils, and the SC-stabilized high endo-phase only emulsion broke at the sixth day of oxidation. From the above findings, it was concluded that the high internal phase emulsion prepared with SC:TA of 2:1 can be used as a good delivery system for fish oil.

Colloidal lignin particle reinforces the stability of Pickering emulsions prepared with zein nanoparticle

Zein nanoparticle (ZNP) is at the forefront of research on Pickering emulsions, valued for its self-assembling and surfactant-free nature. Nevertheless, its emulsion stability is undermined by inadequate amphiphilicity. Colloidal lignin particle (CLP), characterized by its antithetical charge and amphiphilic nature, appears the promising for augmenting the stability of ZNP-based emulsion. This study meticulously investigated the impact of CLP on the colloidal properties and emulsifying performance of ZNP. The results revealed that electrostatic interactions between ZNP and CLP significantly mitigated the charge of ZNP and improved its hydrophilic/lipophilic balance. Under optimized conditions (1.0 wt% particle concentration, pH 4.0, 50% oil content), CLP notably reduced droplet sizes (41-225 μm) and enhanced the stability of ZNP-based Pickering emulsion, particularly at ZNP/CLP ratios of 6:4 and 5:5. In nature, CLP improved the stability ZNP-based Pickering emulsions via increased interfacial adsorption, enhanced steric hindrance, and reinforced viscous structure.

Recent Advances in Astaxanthin as an Antioxidant in Food Applications

In recent years, astaxanthin as a natural substance has received widespread attention for its potential to replace traditional synthetic antioxidants and because its antioxidant activity exceeds that of similar substances. Based on this, this review introduces the specific forms of astaxanthin currently used as an antioxidant in foods, both in its naturally occurring forms and in artificially added forms involving technologies such as emulsion, microcapsule, film, nano liposome and nano particle, aiming to improve its stability, dispersion and bioavailability in complex food systems. In addition, research progress on the application of astaxanthin in various food products, such as whole grains, seafood and poultry products, is summarized. In view of the characteristics of astaxanthin, such as insolubility in water and sensitivity to light, heat, oxygen and humidity, the main research trends of astaxanthin-loaded systems with high encapsulation efficiency, good stability, good taste masking effect and cost-effectiveness are also pointed out. Finally, the possible sensory effects of adding astaxanthin to food aresummarized, providing theoretical support for the development of astaxanthin-related food.

Synergistic effects of phosphorylation modification and protocatechuic acid copolymerization improve the physical and oxidation stability of high internal phase emulsion stabilized by perilla protein isolate

A compact antioxidant interfacial layer was fabricated by combining phosphorylation treatment with protocatechuic acid (PA) copolymerization to enhance the physical and oxidative stability of high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) prepared using perilla protein isolate (PPI). The covalent binding between PPI and phosphate groups induced conformational changes, facilitating the interaction between PPI and PA. The formed phosphorylated PPI-PA conjugates (LPPI-PA) exhibited a reduced particle size of 196.75 nm, promoting their adsorption at the interface. HIPEs prepared by LPPI-PA conjugates showed higher storage stability due to decreased droplet size, increased interfacial protein adsorption content (90.48%), and the formation of an interconnected network within the system. Additionally, the combination of LPPI and PA anchored PA to the interface, significantly inhibiting lipid oxidation in HIPEs as evidenced by low levels of lipid hydroperoxide (30.33 μmol/g oil) and malondialdehyde (379.34 nmol/g oil). This study holds significant implications for improving the stability of HIPEs.

Fabrication of soy protein-polyphenol covalent complex nanoparticles with improved wettability to stabilize high-oil-phase curcumin emulsions

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown that the wettability of protein-based emulsifiers is critical for emulsion stability. However, few studies have been conducted to investigate the effects of varying epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) concentrations on the wettability of protein-based emulsifiers. Additionally, limited studies have examined the effectiveness of soy protein-EGCG covalent complex nanoparticles with improved wettability as emulsifiers for stabilizing high-oil-phase (≥ 30%) curcumin emulsions.

RESULTS

Soy protein isolate (SPI)-EGCG complex nanoparticles (SPIEn) with improved wettability were fabricated to stabilize high-oil-phase curcumin emulsions. The results showed that EGCG forms covalent bonds with SPI, which changes its secondary structure, enhances its surface charge, and improves its wettability. Moreover, SPIEn with 2.0 g L -1 EGCG (SPIEn-2.0) exhibited a better three-phase contact angle (56.8 ± 0.3o) and zeta potential (-27 mV) than SPI. SPIEn-2.0 also facilitated the development of curcumin emulsion gels at an oil volume fraction of 0.5. Specifically, the enhanced network between droplets as a result of the packing effects and SPIEn-2.0 with inherent antioxidant function was more effective at inhibiting curcumin degradation during long-term storage and ultraviolet light exposure.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study indicate that SPIEn with 2.0 g L -1 EGCG (SPIEn-2.0) comprises the optimum conditions for fabricating emulsifiers with improved wettability. Additionally, SPIEn-0.2 can improve the physicochemical stability of high-oil-phase curcumin emulsions, suggesting a novel strategy to design and fabricate high-oil-phase emulsion for encapsulating bioactive compounds. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Characterization of modified starch-based complexes-stabilized linolenic acid emulsions and their enhanced oxidative stability in vitro gastrointestinal digestion

A new approach of fabricating α-linolenic acid emulsions with enhanced oxidative stability in vitro digestion was established, using covalent octenyl succinic anhydride starch (OSAS)-soy protein (SP)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) complexes as emulsifiers. The physicochemical characteristics and surface morphology of emulsions were mainly characterized by rheological measurements, laser scanning microscope (CLSM) and cryo-scanning electron microscopy (Cryo-SEM). Results indicated that emulsions had dense interfacial layers and strong network structures. As a result, the stability and antioxidant ability of emulsions were improved significantly. In addition, the oxidative stability of emulsions in vitro gastrointestinal digestion was explored. Results showed that emulsions could maintain better oxidative stability owing to antioxidant activity of covalent OSAS-SP-EGCG complexes under gastrointestinal conditions. In particular, lipid hydroperoxide and malondialdehyde contents of emulsions prepared by 1:4 complexes were lower than 0.35 mmol/L and 20.5 nmol/mL, respectively, approximately half those of emulsions stabilized by OSAS (0.65 mmol/L and 39.5 nmol/mL). It was indicated that covalent OSAS-SP-EGCG complexes could effectively inhibit α-linolenic acid oxidation in emulsions during vitro gastrointestinal digestion. This work will provide a theoretical basis for the development of α-linolenic acid emulsions, which will help to broaden application of α-linolenic acid in food industry.

High internal phase Pickering emulsions stabilized by the complexes of ultrasound-treated pea protein isolate/mung bean starch for delivery of β-carotene

High internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) stabilized by edible colloid particles have gained great interest. In this study, ultrasound-treated pea protein isolate and mung bean starch complexes (UPPI/MS) were prepared and used in stabilization of HIPPEs. The emulsifying properties of UPPI/MS were found to be superior to those of pea protein isolate (PPI), as evidenced by a smaller particle size and higher surface hydrophobicity. HIPPEs stabilized by UPPI/MS displayed a higher viscoelastic and gel-like structure. Low-Field NMR (LF-NMR) revealed that HIPPEs stabilized by UPPI60/MS (UPPI60/MS-HIPPEs) showed better ability to restrict the mobility of water. UPPI60/MS-HIPPEs also revealed the best environmental stability attributed a stronger three-dimensional network structure. Encapsulation of β-carotene within HIPPEs resulted in improving stability, with UPPI60/MS-HIPPEs exhibiting the highest retention rate of 73.58 %. Moreover, β-carotene encapsulated in HIPPEs displayed enhanced bioaccessibility, with UPPI60/MS-HIPPEs achieving the highest value of 25.37 %. This research highlighted the potential of UPPI60/MS complexes as effective stabilizers for HIPPEs and provided new insights on HIPPEs in nutrient delivery systems.

General approaches to biopolymer-based Pickering emulsions

Pickering emulsion is a type of emulsion that uses solid particles or colloidal particles as emulsifiers rather than surfactants to adhere at oil-water interface. Pickering emulsions have gathered significant research attention recently due to their excellent stability and wide range of potential uses compared to traditional emulsions. Major advancements have been made in development of innovative Pickering emulsions using different colloidal particles by various techniques including homogenization, emulsification and ultrasonication. Use of biopolymer particles gives Pickering emulsions a more escalating possibilities. In this review paper, we seek to present a critical overview of development in food-grade particles that have been utilized to create Pickering emulsions with a focus on techniques and application of Pickering emulsions. Particularly, we have evaluated protein, lipid, polysaccharide-based particles and microalgal proteins that have emerged in recent years with respect to their potential to stabilize and add novel functionalities to Pickering emulsions. Some preparation methods of Pickering emulsions in brief, applications of Pickering emulsions are also highlighted. Encapsulation and delivery of bioactive compounds, fat substitutes, film formation and catalysis are potential applications of Pickering emulsions. Pickering double emulsions, nutraceutical and bioactive co-delivery, and preparation of porous materials are among research trends of food-grade Pickering emulsions.

Recent advances on enhancing 3D printing quality of protein-based inks: A review

3D printing is an additive manufacturing technology that locates constructed models with computer-controlled printing equipment. To achieve high-quality printing, the requirements on rheological properties of raw materials are extremely restrictive. Given the special structure and high modifiability under external physicochemical factors, the rheological properties of proteins can be easily adjusted to suitable properties for 3D printing. Although protein has great potential as a printing material, there are many challenges in the actual printing process. This review summarizes the technical considerations for protein-based ink 3D printing. The physicochemical factors used to enhance the printing adaptability of protein inks are discussed. The post-processing methods for improving the quality of 3D structures are described, and the application and problems of fourth dimension (4D) printing are illustrated. The prospects of 3D printing in protein manufacturing are presented to support its application in food and cultured meat. The native structure and physicochemical factors of proteins are closely related to their rheological properties, which directly link with their adaptability for 3D printing. Printing parameters include extrusion pressure, printing speed, printing temperature, nozzle diameter, filling mode, and density, which significantly affect the precision and stability of the 3D structure. Post-processing can improve the stability and quality of 3D structures. 4D design can enrich the sensory quality of the structure. 3D-printed protein products can meet consumer needs for nutritional or cultured meat alternatives.

Stabilizing effect of silver carp myofibrillar protein modified by high intensity ultrasound on high internal phase emulsions: Protein denaturation, interfacial adsorption and reconfiguration

This study evaluated the impact of high intensity ultrasound (HIU) on myofibrillar proteins (MP) from silver carp, and investigated the stabilizing effect of HIU-treated MP (UMP) on high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs). Ultrasonic cavitation induced protein denaturation by decreasing size and unfolding conformation, to expose more hydrophobic groups, particularly UMP at 390 W, showing the smallest particle size (181.71 nm) and most uniform distribution. These structural changes caused that UMP under 390 W exhibited the highest surface hydrophobicity, solubility (92.72 %) and emulsibility (115.98 m2/g and 70.4 min), all of which contributed to fabricating stable HIPEs with oil volume fraction up to 0.8. UMP-based HIPEs possessed tightly packed gel network and self-supporting appearance due to the adsorption of numerous proteins at the oil-water interface and the reduction of interfacial tension by protein reconfiguration. The larger interface coverage reinforced cross-linking between interfacial proteins, thus increasing the viscoelasticity and recoverability of HIPEs, also the resistance to centrifugal force, high temperature (90 °C, 30 min) and freeze-thaw cycles. These findings furnished insightful perspectives for MP deep processing through HIU, expanding the high-value application of UMP-based HIPEs in fat replacer, nutritional delivery system with high encapsulation content and novel 3D printing ink.

Egg White Protein-Proanthocyanin Complexes Stabilized Emulsions: Investigation of Physical Stability, Digestion Kinetics, and Free Fatty Acid Release Dynamics

Egg white proteins pose notable limitations in emulsion applications due to their inadequate wettability and interfacial instability. Polyphenol-driven alterations in proteins serve as an effective strategy for optimizing their properties. Herein, covalent and non-covalent complexes of egg white proteins-proanthocyanins were synthesized. The analysis of structural alterations, amino acid side chains and wettability was performed. The superior wettability (80.00° ± 2.23°) and rigid structure (2.95 GPa) of covalent complexes established favorable conditions for their utilization in emulsions. Furthermore, stability evaluation, digestion kinetics, free fatty acid (FFA) release kinetics, and correlation analysis were explored to unravel the impact of covalent and non-covalent modification on emulsion stability, dynamic digestion process, and interlinkages. Emulsion stabilized by covalent complex exhibited exceptional stabilization properties, and FFA release kinetics followed both first-order and Korsmeyer-Peppas models. This study offers valuable insights into the application of complexes of proteins-polyphenols in emulsion systems and introduces an innovative approach for analyzing the dynamics of the emulsion digestion process.

Pleurotus ostreatus is a promising candidate of an edible 3D printing ink: Investigation of printability and characterization

The 3D printing (3DP) technology shows great potential in the food industry, but the development of edible ink is currently insufficient. Pleurotus ostreatus (P. ostreatus) emerges as a novel promising candidate. In this study, a mixed ink was obtained by incorporating butter into P. ostreatus. The effects of different ratios of P. ostreatus and butter, as well as the influence of ink steaming were investigated on 3D printed products. The results indicated that all inks of the P. ostreatus system exhibited positive shear-thinning behavior, and the system maintained stable intermolecular hydrogen bonding when P. ostreatus powder concentration was 40 % (w/v). Furthermore, the L* value of the system was elevated for butter adding. The system with steaming exhibited superior stabilized molecular structure compared to the native system, particularly with a steaming duration of 5 min, showcasing its outstanding supporting capacity. This study suggests that P. ostreatus is a promising candidate in 3DP for the development of an edible ink that promotes innovation and nutritional food.

A review of high internal phase Pickering emulsions: Stabilization, rheology, and 3D printing application

High internal phase Pickering emulsion (HIPPE) is renowned for its exceptionally high-volume fraction of internal phase, leading to flocculated yet deformed emulsion droplets and unique rheological behaviors such as shear-thinning property, viscoelasticity, and thixotropic recovery. Alongside the inherent features of regular emulsion systems, such as large interfacial area and well-mixture of two immiscible liquids, the HIPPEs have been emerging as building blocks to construct three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds with customized structures and programmable functions using an extrusion-based 3D printing technique, making 3D-printed HIPPE-based scaffolds attract widespread interest from various fields such as food science, biotechnology, environmental science, and energy transfer. Herein, the recent advances in preparing suitable HIPPEs as 3D printing inks for various applied fields are reviewed. This work begins with the stabilization mechanism of HIPPEs, followed by introducing the origin of their distinctive rheological behaviors and strategies to adjust the rheological behaviors to prepare more eligible HIPPEs as printing inks. Then, the compatibility between extrusion-based 3D printing and HIPPEs as building blocks was discussed, followed by a summary of the potential applications using 3D-printed HIPPE-based scaffolds. Finally, limitations and future perspectives on preparing HIPPE-based materials using extrusion-based 3D printing were presented.

Zein/hyaluronic acid nanoparticle stabilized Pickering emulsion for astaxanthin encapsulation

Pickering emulsions have attracted considerable attention owing to the stability and functionality. In this study, zein/hyaluronic acid (ZH) nanoparticles were prepared and applied for stabilizing astaxanthin encapsulated Pickering emulsions. By non-covalent interaction between Zein and hyaluronic acid (HA), the conformation of zein changed and therefore improved the wettability of ZH nanoparticles. Unlike the spherical zein nanoparticles, ZH nanoparticles possessed a cross-linked structure with rough surface. Confocal laser scanning microscopy indicated that the nanoparticles accumulated at the oil-water interface. The Pickering emulsion stabilized by ZH nanoparticles exhibited high viscoelasticity and a solid-like behavior, as well as excellent stability during the storage. In vitro digestion results revealed that the presence of HA coating prevented the emulsion from pepsin hydrolysis and achieved efficient delivery of astaxanthin. This work confirmed that Pickering emulsion stabilized by ZH nanoparticles could be used as an effective deliver system for bioactive substances.

Identification of Protein-Phenol Adducts in Meat Proteins: A Molecular Probe Technology Study

Plant polyphenols with a catechol structure can form covalent adducts with meat proteins, which affects the quality and processing of meat products. However, there is a lack of fast and effective methods of characterizing these adducts and understanding their mechanisms. This study aimed to investigate the covalent interaction between myofibrillar protein (MP) and caffeic acid (CA), a plant polyphenol with a catechol structure, using molecular probe technology. The CA-MP adducts were separated via sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and detected via Western blot and LC-MS/MS analyses. The Western blot analysis revealed that various specific adducts were successfully enriched and identified as bands around 220 kDa, 45 kDa, and two distinct bands between 95 and 130 kDa. Combined with the LC-MS/MS analysis, a total of 51 peptides were identified to be CA-adducted, corresponding to 31 proteins. More than 80% of the adducted peptides carried one adducted site, and the rest carried two adducted sites. The adducted sites were located on cysteine (C/Cys), histidine (H/His), arginine (R/Arg), lysine (K/Lys), proline (P/Pro), and N-terminal (N-Term) residues. Results showed that the covalent interaction of CA and MP was highly selective for the R side chain of amino acids. Moreover, the adducts were more likely to form via C-N bonding than C-S bonding. This study provides new insights into the covalent interaction of plant polyphenols and meat proteins, which has important implications for the rational use of plant polyphenols in the meat processing industry.

Pickering emulsions prepared using zein-sugarcane leaves polyphenol covalent crosslinking nanoparticles via ultrasonication: Capacities in storage stability, lipid oxidation, in vitro digestion and safety evaluation

This study firstly used sugarcane leaf polyphenols (SGLp) to modify zein to form covalent nanoparticles (SGLpZ) and used SGLpZ as an emulsifier to stabilize pickering emulsions (SZP) via ultrasonic method. The results showed that the addition of SGLp could alter the physicochemical properties of zein, including improving increasing the hydrophilicity of zein and the antioxidant properties of zein (three basic antioxidant activities test in vitro). SGLpZ could be able to form a dense film on the surface of the pickering emulsions which inhibited lipid oxidation as the concentration of SGLp increased at 4 ℃ for 20 days, thus stabilizing pickering emulsions (SZP). Further assessment of storage stability of pickering emulsions stabilized by SGLp was evaluated via measuring the free fatty acids (FFA) release in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. The results showed that the FFA release of SZP decreased from 20.61 ± 0.10% to 16.14 ± 0.69%. In addition, SGLp gave SZP a yellow color, which inspired that SZP could be used in the food industry to make yellow-colored functional foods. Finally, the safety of SZP initially assessed by in-vitro hemocompatibility and cytotoxicity (MTT) assays. In conclusion, our fingdings were beneficial for the further design and development of SGLp in food fields and enabled the development a new type in functional protein-plant polyphenols food pickering emulsions.

Soy protein isolate-citrus pectin-gallic acid ternary composite high internal phase Pickering emulsion for delivery of β-carotene: Physicochemical, structural and digestive properties

The structure properties, stability and β-carotene slow-release mechanism of soybean protein isolate-citrus pectin-gallic acid complex (SPI-CP-GA) stabilized high-internal phase Pickering emulsion (HIPPE) were investigated. The results showed that compared with the SPI-CP binary complex, the turbidity of the SPI-CP-GA ternary complex increased from 2.174 ± 0.001 to 3.027 ± 0.001, the surface wettability was increased, the infrared peaks was blue-shifted, changed from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, and the equilibrium interfacial tension of particles increased from 10.77 ± 0.02 mN/m to 13.46 ± 0.03 mN/m, the complex was more stable. When the GA was 2.0 mg/mL, the encapsulation efficiency of β-carotene was higher. With increased GA concentration and oil phase volume fraction (φ), the apparent viscosity and viscoelastic behavior of HIPPE performed well, forming a stable gel network structure. After 30 days of storage, there was no oil separation in the sample group with GA concentration of 2.0 mg/mL and φ = 0.7, and the stability was strong. After gastrointestinal digestion, the particle size of the HIPPE decreased from 13.51 ± 0.86 μm to 7.70 ± 0.68 μm, the free fatty acid (FFA) release rate was 22.03%, and the bioaccessibility of β-carotene was 6.67 ± 0.19%, and the sustained-release effect was obvious. These results indicated that the SPI-CP-GA ternary complex is a potential stabilizer for HIPPE, and providing theoretical guidance for the design of protein-polysaccharide-polyphenol stabilized HIPPE.

Development and characterization of self-emulsifying high internal phase emulsions using endogenous phospholipids from Antarctic krill oil

High internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) have emerged as a promising structured oil system in food industry. This study developed self-emulsifying HIPEs (SHIPEs) using Antarctic krill oil (KO) with endogenous phospholipids as surfactant and algae oil as a diluent. The influence of phospholipids self-assembly on SHIPEs formation was investigated by evaluating the microstructures, particle size, rheological properties, and water distribution. Results demonstrated that the concentration and self-assembly behavior of phospholipids dominated the SHIPEs formation. Optimized SHIPEs with desirable gel properties contained 10 wt% krill oil in the oil phase at an 80 wt% oil phase level. Furthermore, these SHIPEs exhibited excellent performance in 3D printing applications. Hydrated phospholipids formed lamellar network at the oil-water interface, enhancing gel strength by crosslinking oil droplets. These findings shed light on the self-assembly of phospholipids during HIPEs formation and highlight the potential phospholipids-rich marine lipids in SHIPEs for functional food products development.