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O'Connell L, Marcoux PR, Roupioz Y. Strategies for Surface Immobilization of Whole Bacteriophages: A Review. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021; 7:1987-2014. [PMID: 34038088 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Bacteriophage immobilization is a key unit operation in emerging biotechnologies, enabling new possibilities for biodetection of pathogenic microbes at low concentration, production of materials with novel antimicrobial properties, and fundamental research on bacteriophages themselves. Wild type bacteriophages exhibit extreme binding specificity for a single species, and often for a particular subspecies, of bacteria. Since their specificity originates in epitope recognition by capsid proteins, which can be altered by chemical or genetic modification, their binding specificity may also be redirected toward arbitrary substrates and/or a variety of analytes in addition to bacteria. The immobilization of bacteriophages on planar and particulate substrates is thus an area of active and increasing scientific interest. This review assembles the knowledge gained so far in the immobilization of whole phage particles, summarizing the main chemistries, and presenting the current state-of-the-art both for an audience well-versed in bioconjugation methods as well as for those who are new to the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry O'Connell
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, LETI, F38054 Grenoble, France.,Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG, SyMMES, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | | | - Yoann Roupioz
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG, SyMMES, 38000 Grenoble, France
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2
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Tong Z, Silo-Suh LA, Kalalah A, Dawson P, Chin BA, Suh SJ. Efficient affinity-tagging of M13 phage capsid protein IX for immobilization of protein III-displayed oligopeptide probes on abiotic platforms. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:1201-1209. [PMID: 31900564 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-10338-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We developed a genetic approach to efficiently add an affinity tag to every copy of protein IX (pIX) of M13 filamentous bacteriophage in a population. Affinity-tagged phages can be immobilized on a surface in a uniform monolayer in order to position the pIII-displayed peptides or proteins for optimal interaction with ligands. The tagging consists of two major steps. First, gene IX (gIX) of M13 phage is mutated in Escherichia coli via genetic recombineering with the gIX::aacCI insertion allele. Second, a plasmid that co-produces the affinity-tagged pIX and native pVIII is transformed into the strain carrying the defective M13 gIX. This genetic complementation allows the formation of infective phage particles that carry a full complement (five copies per virion) of the affinity-tagged pIX. To demonstrate the efficacy of our method, we tagged a M13 derivative phage, M13KE, with Strep-tag II. In order to tag pIX with Strep-tag II, the phage genes for pIX and pVIII were cloned and expressed from pASG-IBA4 which contains the E. coli OmpA signal sequence and Strep-Tag II under control of the tetracycline promoter/operator system. We achieved the maximum phage production of 3 × 1011 pfu/ml when Strep-Tag II-pIX-pVIII fusion was induced with 10 ng/ml of anhydrotetracycline. The complete process of affinity tagging a phage probe takes less than 5 days and can be utilized to tag any M13 or fd pIII-displayed oligopeptide probes to improve their performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhou Tong
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Laura A Silo-Suh
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University College of Dentistry, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Anwar Kalalah
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Paul Dawson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Bryan A Chin
- Department of Materials Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Sang-Jin Suh
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University College of Dentistry, Dallas, TX, USA.
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Bacteriophages as Potential Tools for Detection and Control of Salmonella spp. in Food Systems. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7110570. [PMID: 31744260 PMCID: PMC6920764 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7110570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The global problem of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is quickly developing in most antibiotics used in hospitals and livestock. Recently, the infections with multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria become a major cause of death worldwide. Current antibiotics are not very effective in treating MDR Salmonella infections, which have become a public health threat. Therefore, novel approaches are needed to rapidly detect and effectively control antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Bacteriophages (phages) have seen renewed attention for satisfying those requirements due to their host-specific properties. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the possibility of using phages as a detection tool for recognizing bacterial cell surface receptors and an alternative approach for controlling antibiotic-resistant pathogens in food systems.
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Lytic KFS-SE2 phage as a novel bio-receptor for Salmonella Enteritidis detection. J Microbiol 2019; 57:170-179. [PMID: 30706346 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-019-8610-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Since Salmonella Enteritidis is one of the major foodborne pathogens, on-site applicable rapid detection methods have been required for its control. The purpose of this study was to isolate and purify S. Enteritidis-specific phage (KFS-SE2 phage) from an eel farm and to investigate its feasibility as a novel, efficient, and reliable bio-receptor for its employment. KFS-SE2 phage was successfully isolated at a high concentration of (2.31 ± 0.43) × 1011 PFU/ml, and consisted of an icosahedral head of 65.44 ± 10.08 nm with a non-contractile tail of 135.21 ± 12.41 nm. The morphological and phylogenetic analysis confirmed that it belongs to the Pis4avirus genus in the family of Siphoviridae. KFS-SE2 genome consisted of 48,608 bp with 45.7% of GC content. Genome analysis represented KFS-SE2 to have distinctive characteristics as a novel phage. Comparative analysis of KFS-SE2 phage with closely related strains confirmed its novelty by the presence of unique proteins. KFS-SE2 phage exhibited excellent specificity to S. Enteritidis and was stable under the temperature range of 4 to 50°C and pH of 3 to 11 (P < 0.05). The latent time was determined to be 20 min. Overall, a new lytic KFS-SE2 phage was successfully isolated from the environment at a high concentration and the excellent feasibility of KFS-SE2 phage was demonstrated as a new bio-receptor for S. Enteritidis detection.
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Anany H, Brovko LY, Arutyunov D, Poshtiban N, Singh A, Singh U, Brook M, Szymanski C, Evoy S, Griffiths MW. Immobilization of Intact Phage and Phage-Derived Proteins for Detection and Biocontrol Purposes. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1898:89-105. [PMID: 30570726 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-8940-9_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The natural specificity of bacteriophages toward their hosts represents great potential for the development of platforms for the capture and detection of bacterial pathogens. Whole phage can carry reporter genes to alter the phenotype of the target pathogen. Phage can also act as staining agents or the progeny of the infection process can be detected. Alternatively, using phage components as probes offer advantages over whole phage particles, including smaller probe size and resilience to desiccation. Phage structures can be engineered for improved affinity, specificity, and binding properties. However, such concepts require the ability to anchor phage and phage-components onto mechanical supports such as beads or flat surfaces. The ability to orient the anchoring is desired in order to optimize binding efficiency. This chapter presents various methods that have been employed for the attachment of phage and phage components onto support structures such as beads, filters, and sensor surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hany Anany
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph Research and Development Center, Guelph, ON, Canada.
- Food Science Department, Canadian Research Institute for Food Safety, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
| | - Luba Y Brovko
- Food Science Department, Canadian Research Institute for Food Safety, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Denis Arutyunov
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alberta Glycomics Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Nilufar Poshtiban
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Amit Singh
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Upasana Singh
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Michael Brook
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Christine Szymanski
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alberta Glycomics Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Stephane Evoy
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Mansel W Griffiths
- Food Science Department, Canadian Research Institute for Food Safety, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Walper SA, Lasarte Aragonés G, Sapsford KE, Brown CW, Rowland CE, Breger JC, Medintz IL. Detecting Biothreat Agents: From Current Diagnostics to Developing Sensor Technologies. ACS Sens 2018; 3:1894-2024. [PMID: 30080029 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.8b00420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Although a fundamental understanding of the pathogenicity of most biothreat agents has been elucidated and available treatments have increased substantially over the past decades, they still represent a significant public health threat in this age of (bio)terrorism, indiscriminate warfare, pollution, climate change, unchecked population growth, and globalization. The key step to almost all prevention, protection, prophylaxis, post-exposure treatment, and mitigation of any bioagent is early detection. Here, we review available methods for detecting bioagents including pathogenic bacteria and viruses along with their toxins. An introduction placing this subject in the historical context of previous naturally occurring outbreaks and efforts to weaponize selected agents is first provided along with definitions and relevant considerations. An overview of the detection technologies that find use in this endeavor along with how they provide data or transduce signal within a sensing configuration follows. Current "gold" standards for biothreat detection/diagnostics along with a listing of relevant FDA approved in vitro diagnostic devices is then discussed to provide an overview of the current state of the art. Given the 2014 outbreak of Ebola virus in Western Africa and the recent 2016 spread of Zika virus in the Americas, discussion of what constitutes a public health emergency and how new in vitro diagnostic devices are authorized for emergency use in the U.S. are also included. The majority of the Review is then subdivided around the sensing of bacterial, viral, and toxin biothreats with each including an overview of the major agents in that class, a detailed cross-section of different sensing methods in development based on assay format or analytical technique, and some discussion of related microfluidic lab-on-a-chip/point-of-care devices. Finally, an outlook is given on how this field will develop from the perspective of the biosensing technology itself and the new emerging threats they may face.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A. Walper
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| | - Guillermo Lasarte Aragonés
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
- College of Science, George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia 22030, United States
| | - Kim E. Sapsford
- OMPT/CDRH/OIR/DMD Bacterial Respiratory and Medical Countermeasures Branch, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland 20993, United States
| | - Carl W. Brown
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
- College of Science, George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia 22030, United States
| | - Clare E. Rowland
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
- National Research Council, Washington, D.C. 20036, United States
| | - Joyce C. Breger
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| | - Igor L. Medintz
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
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Niyomdecha S, Limbut W, Numnuam A, Kanatharana P, Charlermroj R, Karoonuthaisiri N, Thavarungkul P. Phage-based capacitive biosensor for Salmonella detection. Talanta 2018; 188:658-664. [PMID: 30029427 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This article reports the detection of Salmonella spp. based on M13 bacteriophage in a capacitive flow injection system. Salmonella-specific M13 bacteriophage was immobilized on a polytyramine/gold surface using glutaraldehyde as a crosslinker. The M13 bacteriophage modified electrode can specifically bind to Salmonella spp. via the amino acid groups on the filamentous phage. An alkaline solution was used to break the binding between the sensing surface and the analyte to allow renewable use up to 40 times. This capacitive system provided good reproducibility with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 1.1%. A 75 µL min-1 flow rate and a 300 µL sample volume provided a wide linear range, from 2.0 × 102 to 1.0 × 107 cfu mL-1, with a detection limit of 200 cfu mL-1. Bacteria concentration can be analyzed within 40 min after the sample injection. When applied to test real samples (raw chicken meat) it provided good recoveries (100-111%). An enrichment process was also explored to increase the bacteria concentration, enabling a quantitative detection of Salmonella spp. This biosensor opens a new opportunity for the detection of pathogenic bacteria using bacteriophage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saroh Niyomdecha
- Trace Analysis and Biosensor Research Center, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
| | - Warakorn Limbut
- Trace Analysis and Biosensor Research Center, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Department of Applied Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
| | - Apon Numnuam
- Trace Analysis and Biosensor Research Center, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
| | - Proespichaya Kanatharana
- Trace Analysis and Biosensor Research Center, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
| | - Ratthaphol Charlermroj
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Nitsara Karoonuthaisiri
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand.
| | - Panote Thavarungkul
- Trace Analysis and Biosensor Research Center, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand.
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Anany H, Chou Y, Cucic S, Derda R, Evoy S, Griffiths M. From Bits and Pieces to Whole Phage to Nanomachines: Pathogen Detection Using Bacteriophages. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2017; 8:305-329. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-041715-033235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H. Anany
- Canadian Institute for Food Safety, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1;, ,
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt 11566
| | - Y. Chou
- Department of Chemistry and Alberta Glycomics Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G2
| | - S. Cucic
- Canadian Institute for Food Safety, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1;, ,
| | - R. Derda
- Department of Chemistry and Alberta Glycomics Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G2
| | - S. Evoy
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G2
| | - M.W. Griffiths
- Canadian Institute for Food Safety, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1;, ,
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Oh JH, Park MK. Immunosensors combined with a light microscopic imaging system for rapid detection of Salmonella. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Hosseinidoust Z, Olsson AL, Tufenkji N. Going viral: Designing bioactive surfaces with bacteriophage. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2014; 124:2-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.05.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Revised: 05/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Wu W, Li J, Pan D, Li J, Song S, Rong M, Li Z, Gao J, Lu J. Gold nanoparticle-based enzyme-linked antibody-aptamer sandwich assay for detection of Salmonella Typhimurium. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2014; 6:16974-81. [PMID: 25188392 DOI: 10.1021/am5045828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) provides a convenient means for the detection of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (STM), which is important for rapid diagnosis of foodborne pathogens. However, conventional ELISA is limited by antibody-antigen immunoreactions and suffers from poor sensitivity and tedious sample pretreatment. Therefore, development of novel ELISA remains challenging. Herein, we designed a comprehensive strategy for rapid, sensitive, and quantitative detection of STM with high specificity by gold nanoparticle-based enzyme-linked antibody-aptamer sandwich (nano-ELAAS) method. STM was captured and preconcentrated from samples with aptamer-modified magnetic particles, followed by binding with detector antibodies. Then nanoprobes carrying a large amount of reporter antibodies and horseradish peroxidase molecules were used for colorimetric signal amplification. Under the optimized reaction conditions, the nano-ELAAS assay had a quantitative detection range from 1 × 10(3) to 1 × 10(8) CFU mL(-1), a limit of detection of 1 × 10(3) CFU mL(-1), and a selectivity of >10-fold for STM in samples containing other bacteria at higher concentration with an assay time less than 3 h. In addition, the developed nanoprobes were improved in terms of detection range and/or sensitivity when compared with two commercial enzyme-labeled antibody signal reporters. Finally, the nano-ELAAS method was demonstrated to work well in milk samples, a common source of STM contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhe Wu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Wenzhou Medical University , Wenzhou 325035, Zhejiang, China
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Chai Y, Horikawa S, Li S, Wikle HC, Chin BA. A surface-scanning coil detector for real-time, in-situ detection of bacteria on fresh food surfaces. Biosens Bioelectron 2013; 50:311-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.06.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2013] [Revised: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Park MK, Weerakoon KA, Oh JH, Chin BA. The analytical comparison of phage-based magnetoelastic biosensor with TaqMan-based quantitative PCR method to detect Salmonella Typhimurium on cantaloupes. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Brovko LY, Anany H, Griffiths MW. Bacteriophages for detection and control of bacterial pathogens in food and food-processing environment. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2012; 67:241-288. [PMID: 23034118 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394598-3.00006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This chapter presents recent advances in bacteriophage research and their application in the area of food safety. Section 1 describes general facts on phage biology that are relevant to their application for control and detection of bacterial pathogens in food and environmental samples. Section 2 summarizes the recently acquired data on application of bacteriophages to control growth of bacterial pathogens and spoilage organisms in food and food-processing environment. Section 3 deals with application of bacteriophages for detection and identification of bacterial pathogens. Advantages of bacteriophage-based methods are presented and their shortcomings are discussed. The chapter is intended for food scientist and food product developers, and people in food inspection and health agencies with the ultimate goal to attract their attention to the new developing technology that has a tremendous potential in providing means for producing wholesome and safe food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubov Y Brovko
- Canadian Research Institute for Food Safety, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
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