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Comprehensive Review of Aflatoxin Contamination, Impact on Health and Food Security, and Management Strategies in Pakistan. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120845. [PMID: 36548742 PMCID: PMC9781569 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most important toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic fungal toxins that routinely contaminate food and feed. While more than 20 AFs have been identified to date, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and M1 (AFM1) are the most common. Over 25 species of Aspergillus have been shown to produce AFs, with Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and Aspergillus nomius being the most important and well-known AF-producing fungi. These ubiquitous molds can propagate on agricultural commodities to produce AFs in fields and during harvesting, processing, transportation, and storage. Countries with warmer climates and that produce foods susceptible to AF contamination shoulder a substantial portion of the global AF burden. Pakistan's warm climate promotes the growth of toxigenic fungi, resulting in frequent AF contamination of human foods and animal feeds. The potential for contamination in Pakistan is exacerbated by improper storage conditions and a lack of regulatory limits and enforcement mechanisms. High levels of AFs in common commodities produced in Pakistan are a major food safety problem, posing serious health risks to the population. Furthermore, aflatoxin contamination contributes to economic losses by limiting exports of these commodities. In this review, recent information regarding the fungal producers of AFs, prevalence of AF contamination of foods and feed, current regulations, and AF prevention and removal strategies are summarized, with a major focus on Pakistan.
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Mycotoxins in food, recent development in food analysis and future challenges; a review. Curr Opin Food Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2021.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Waqas M, Iqbal SZ, Abdull Razis AF, Pervaiz W, Ahmad T, Usman S, Ali NB, Asi MR. Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Edible Vegetable Seeds and Oil Samples Available in Pakistani Retail Markets and Estimation of Dietary Intake in Consumers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18158015. [PMID: 34360308 PMCID: PMC8345775 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18158015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites toxic to humans as well as animals. The environmental conditions, conventional agricultural practices, and illiteracy are the main factors which favor the production of AFs in food and feed. In the current study 744 samples of vegetable seeds and oils (soybean, sunflower, canola, olive, corn, and mustard) were collected and tested for the presence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total AFs. Liquid-liquid extraction was employed for the extraction of AFs from seeds and oil samples. Reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography equipped with fluorescence detection was used for the analysis. The results have shown that 92 (56.7%) samples of imported and 108 (57.0%) samples of local edible seeds were observed to be contaminated with AFs. All samples of edible seeds have AFB1 levels greater than the proposed limit set by the European Union (EU, 2 µg/kg) and 12 (7.40%) samples of imported seeds and 14 (7.40%) samples of local seeds were found in the range ≥ 50 µg/kg. About 78 (43.3%) samples of imported edible oil and 103 (48.3%) sample of local edible oil were observed to be positive for AFs. Furthermore, 16 (8.88%) and six (3.33%) samples of imported vegetable oil have levels of total AFs in a range (21–50 µg/kg) and greater than 50 µg/kg, respectively. The findings indicate significant differences in AFs levels between imported and local vegetable oil samples (t = 22.27 and p = 0.009) at α = 0.05 and a significant difference in AFs levels were found between vegetable seeds and oil samples (t = −17.75, p = 0.009) at α = 0.05. The highest dietary intake was found for a local sunflower oil sample (0.90 µg/kg/day) in female individuals (16–22 age group). The results have shown considerably high levels of AFB1 and total AFs in seeds and oil samples and emphasise the need to monitor carefully the levels of these toxic substances in food and feed on regular basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Waqas
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (M.W.); (W.P.); (T.A.)
| | - Shahzad Zafar Iqbal
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (M.W.); (W.P.); (T.A.)
- Correspondence: (S.Z.I.); (A.F.A.R.)
| | - Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (S.Z.I.); (A.F.A.R.)
| | - Wajeeha Pervaiz
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (M.W.); (W.P.); (T.A.)
| | - Touheed Ahmad
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (M.W.); (W.P.); (T.A.)
| | - Sunusi Usman
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Nada Basheir Ali
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
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Razis AFA, Shehzad MM, Usman S, Ali NB, Iqbal SZ, Naheed N, Asi MR. Seasonal Variation in Aflatoxin Levels in Edible Seeds, Estimation of Its Dietary Intake and Vitamin E Levels in Southern Areas of Punjab, Pakistan. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E8964. [PMID: 33276517 PMCID: PMC7730547 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17238964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
A total of 779 samples of edible nuts (melon seeds, watermelon seeds, pumpkin seeds, and cantaloupe seeds) from Southern Punjab (Pakistan), were collected during the summer and the winter seasons. The natural occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) and vitamin E (tocopherols) levels were investigated using HPLC. The results have shown that 180 (43.4%) of samples from the winter season and 122 (33.4%) samples from the summer season were found positive for AFs. Elevated average levels of total AFs (20.9 ± 3.10 μg/kg, dry weight) were observed in watermelon seeds without shell, and the lowest average amount (15.9 ± 3.60 μg/kg) were documented in melon seeds without shell samples from the winter season. An elevated average amount of total AFs 17.3 ± 1.50 μg/kg was found in pumpkin seeds available without a shell. The results have documented a significant difference in total AFs levels in edible seeds available with shells versus without shells (α = 0.05 & 0.01). The highest dietary intake of 6.30 μg/kg/day was found in female individuals from consuming pumpkin seeds (without shell) in the winter season. A value of 3.00 μg/kg/day was found in pumpkin seed without shell in the summer season in female individuals. The highest total tocopherol levels were 22.2 ± 7.70 ng/100 g in pumpkin seeds samples from the winter season and 14.5 ± 5.50 mg/100 g in melon seed samples from the summer season. The variation of total tocopherol levels in edible seeds among the winter and summer seasons showed a significant difference (p ≤ 0.0054), except watermelon seeds samples with non-significant differences (p ≥ 0.183).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Muhammed Muzammel Shehzad
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (M.M.S.); (N.N.)
| | - Sunusi Usman
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Nada Basheir Ali
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Shahzad Zafar Iqbal
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (M.M.S.); (N.N.)
| | - Nadia Naheed
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (M.M.S.); (N.N.)
| | - Muhammad Rafique Asi
- Food Toxicology Lab, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan;
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Akhtar S, Riaz M, Naeem I, Gong YY, Ismail A, Hussain M, Akram K. Risk assessment of aflatoxins and selected heavy metals through intake of branded and non-branded spices collected from the markets of Multan city of Pakistan. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Detection of Total Aflatoxins in Groundnut and Soybean Samples in Yemen Using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. J FOOD QUALITY 2019. [DOI: 10.1155/2019/1614502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins are fungal toxins that have mutagenic and carcinogenic effects, especially hepatocellular carcinoma effect. This work aimed to investigate the presence of aflatoxins in groundnuts and soybeans that are consumed in Yemen. The samples were collected from three different regions in Yemen (Sana’a, al-Hodeida, and Aden), and they were divided into two groups. The concentration of total aflatoxins was analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Aflatoxins were determined in 89 groundnut and 65 soybean samples. The results showed that 85.39% (76/89) of groundnut and 72.3% (45/65) of soybean samples were contaminated with aflatoxins. In addition, in 49.44% and 27.6% of the groundnut and soybean samples, total aflatoxins exceed the acceptable level of European Commission (4 μg/kg), while in only 6.2% of soybean samples and 22.47% of groundnut samples, total aflatoxins were beyond the maximum limit of FDA/Yemen standards (20 μg/kg). The results showed that the aflatoxin contamination in the groundnut and soybean samples may be considered a significant risk for public health. The present study is the first to report the data on the presence of aflatoxins in groundnut and soybean samples in Yemen.
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Probabilistic health risk assessment for dietary exposure to aflatoxin in peanut and peanut products in Taiwan. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Pukkasorn P, Ratphitagsanti W, Haruthaitanasan V. Effect of ultra-superheated steam on aflatoxin reduction and roasted peanut properties. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2018; 98:2935-2941. [PMID: 29168184 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aflatoxins are carcinogenic toxins produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus that are found naturally in peanut. It requires extremely high temperatures to eliminate aflatoxins from the nuts. The aims of this study were to investigate the effect of ultra-superheated steam (USS) on the reduction of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) accompanying the roasting process and to determine roasted peanut qualities that affected consumer acceptance. RESULTS Whole peanut kernels were intentionally contaminated by AFB1 standard solution at the level of 50 ± 10 µg kg-1 before subjecting to USS treatment at 300-400 °C between 10 and 80 s. The high temperature of USS could significantly decrease AFB1 level to 9.83 ± 3.51, 15.33 ± 2.23 and 8.95 ± 2.32 µg kg-1 when 300 °C for 80 s, 350 °C for 40 s and 400 °C for 40 s were employed, respectively. AFB1 was reduced as much as 83.86 ± 2.66% when 400 °C for 40 s was applied. The moisture content of treated peanuts was decreased to less than 3% and browning index was developed from 30.96 ± 1.59 to 95.76 ± 7.23. CONCLUSION Higher roasting degree was obtained according to the increase in browning index. Oil quality showed that peroxide values and acid values were greatly below the allowance level. USS could effectively decrease AFB1 and render expectable roasting qualities of peanut. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parawee Pukkasorn
- Department of Product Development, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Ladyaow, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Wannasawat Ratphitagsanti
- Department of Product Development, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Ladyaow, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Vichai Haruthaitanasan
- Department of Product Development, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Ladyaow, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
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Iqbal SZ, Mehmood Z, Asi MR, Shahid M, Sehar M, Malik N. Co-occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in nuts, dry fruits, and nuty products. J Food Saf 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shahzad Zafar Iqbal
- Department of Applied Chemistry; Government College University Faisalabad; Faisalabad Pakistan
- Department of Plant Biology; Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey; New Brunswick New Jersey
| | - Zehid Mehmood
- Department of Biochemistry; Government College University Faisalabad; Faisalabad Pakistan
| | | | - Misbah Shahid
- Department of Biochemistry; Government College University Faisalabad; Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Mubasharah Sehar
- Department of Biochemistry; Government College University Faisalabad; Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Noeen Malik
- Department of Radiology; New York State University; New York New York
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Sulaiman SH, Jamaluddin R, Sabran MR. Association between Urinary Aflatoxin (AFM₁) and Dietary Intake among Adults in Hulu Langat District, Selangor, Malaysia. Nutrients 2018; 10:nu10040460. [PMID: 29642443 PMCID: PMC5946245 DOI: 10.3390/nu10040460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin is a food contaminant and its exposure through the diet is frequent and ubiquitous. A long-term dietary aflatoxin exposure has been linked to the development of liver cancer in populations with high prevalence of aflatoxin contamination in foods. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify the association between urinary aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a biomarker of aflatoxin exposure, with the dietary intake among adults in Hulu Langat district, Selangor, Malaysia. Certain food products have higher potential for aflatoxin contamination and these were listed in a Food Frequency Questionnaire, which was given to all study participants. This allowed us to record consumption rates for each food product listed. Concomitantly, urine samples were collected, from adults in selected areas in Hulu Langat district, for the measurement of AFM1 levels using an ELISA kit. Of the 444 urine samples collected and tested, 199 were positive for AFM1, with 37 of them exceeding the limit of detection (LOD) of 0.64 ng/mL. Cereal products showed the highest consumption level among all food groups, with an average intake of 512.54 g per day. Chi-square analysis showed that consumption of eggs (X2 = 4.77, p = 0.03) and dairy products (X2 = 19.36, p < 0.01) had significant associations with urinary AFM1 but both food groups were having a phi and Cramer’s V value that less than 0.3, which indicated that the association between these food groups’ consumption and AFM1 level in urine was weak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siti Husna Sulaiman
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Rosita Jamaluddin
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Mohd Redzwan Sabran
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
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Granados-Chinchilla F, Molina A, Chavarría G, Alfaro-Cascante M, Bogantes-Ledezma D, Murillo-Williams A. Aflatoxins occurrence through the food chain in Costa Rica: Applying the One Health approach to mycotoxin surveillance. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Saladino F, Quiles JM, Luciano FB, Mañes J, Fernández-Franzón M, Meca G. Shelf life improvement of the loaf bread using allyl, phenyl and benzyl isothiocyanates against Aspergillus parasiticus. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2016.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Wu S, Ricke SC, Schneider KR, Ahn S. Food safety hazards associated with ready-to-bake cookie dough and its ingredients. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Akhtar S, Randhawa M, Riaz M, Hameed A, Ismail T, Ismail A, Ali Z. Food safety conundrum: a Pakistan's scenario. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND SAFETY OF CROPS & FOODS 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/qas2014.0435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Akhtar
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, 60000 Multan, Pakistan
| | - M.A. Randhawa
- National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, 38040 Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - M. Riaz
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, 60000 Multan, Pakistan
| | - A. Hameed
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, 60000 Multan, Pakistan
| | - T. Ismail
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, 60000 Multan, Pakistan
| | - A. Ismail
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, 60000 Multan, Pakistan
| | - Z. Ali
- Department of Agriculture and Food Technology, Karakoram International University, 15100 Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan
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Hontanaya C, Meca G, Luciano F, Mañes J, Font G. Inhibition of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 production by Aspergillus parasiticus in nuts using yellow and oriental mustard flours. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Variation of aflatoxin M1 contamination in milk and milk products collected during winter and summer seasons. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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